Editing Fusion cuisine (section)

==History==
[[File:Red roast duck curry.jpg|thumb|''Kaeng phet pet yang'' (Thai roast duck curry) is an example of early fusion cuisine of the [[Multiculturalism|cosmopolitan]] court of the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]], combining [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] red curry, Chinese roast duck, and grapes originally from [[Persia]].]]
[[File:Ethiopian cuisine fusion.jpg|thumb|Traditional Ethiopian cuisine blended with Texas-style barbeque, including pork, smoked brisket, and [[Texas toast]]]]
Fusion cuisine has existed for millennia as a form of cross-cultural exchange, though the term was only defined in the late 1900s. Mixtures of different cultures' cuisines have been adapted since the 16th century.

=== Colonialism ===
A lasting legacy of colonialism is fusion food. Colonial trade resulted in the exchange of ingredients, such as [[bánh mì]] originating from French ingredients used in [[French Indochina]], [[Jamaican patty|Jamaican patties]] combining the [[Turnover (food)|turnover]] with spices and peppers from the [[British Empire]]'s possessions in Asia and Africa, and [[ramen]] originating as "''shina soba''" or "Chinese noodle" from the [[Empire of Japan]]'s occupation of China's island territories in the late 1800s and early 1900s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Smithsonian |title=Sorry, Wolfgang, Fusion Foods Have Been With Us for Centuries |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/sorry-wolfgang-fusion-foods-have-been-with-us-for-centuries-17238814/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2015-12-04 |title=The History of Fusion Cuisine |url=https://exquisite-taste-magazine.com/the-history-of-fusion-cuisine/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=Exquisite Taste |language=en-US}}</ref> Indigenous domestic servants were active participants in creating fusion foods by mixing ingredients and techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Rosie |date=September 2013 |title=Food Culture in Colonial Asia: A Taste of Empire |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357823.2013.823845 |journal=Asian Studies Review |language=en |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=402–403 |doi=10.1080/10357823.2013.823845 |issn=1035-7823}}</ref>

Alongside the creation of new dishes, colonialism also introduced class dimensions of food as [[cultural capital]] that modified consumption patterns.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colonization, Food, and the Practice of Eating – Food Empowerment Project |url=https://foodispower.org/our-food-choices/colonization-food-and-the-practice-of-eating/ |access-date=2023-08-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> Indigenous practices of eating guinea pigs in Peru were banned and considered savage until recent movements to reclaim food practices, resulting in the erasure of much traditional knowledge in indigenous communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=defrance |first=Susan D. |date=January 2006 |title=The Sixth Toe: The Modern Culinary Role of the Guinea Pig In Southern Peru |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07409710500334517 |journal=Food and Foodways |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=3–34 |doi=10.1080/07409710500334517 |issn=0740-9710}}</ref> These hierarchies are argued to be present in modern fusion food, which has been criticised for being portrayed as European cuisines 'elevating' other cuisines into modernity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Janer |first=Zilkia |date=March 2007 |title=(IN)EDIBLE NATURE: New world food and coloniality |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09502380601162597 |journal=Cultural Studies |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2–3 |pages=385–405 |doi=10.1080/09502380601162597 |issn=0950-2386}}</ref> Colonial debates also extend into discourse about the authenticity of foods such as [[Orientalism|orientalist]] critiques of [[Migrants' food consumption|immigrant food]] being gentrified as ‘ethnic’ food.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-20 |title=Why we need to stop calling immigrant food 'ethnic' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/food-gentrification-ethnic-cuisine-immigrant-chefs-critics-stop-calling-anthony-bourdain-krishendu-ray-a7957051.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>

=== Adaptation to local palates ===
In a climate of increasing globalization, where cultures and cuisines frequently cross-borders, cooking and food evolves to cater to the palates of the local communities, a phenomenon known as "glocalization", a [[Blend word|portmanteau]] of "localization" and "globalization".” Fusion cuisine is sometimes created by multinational restaurants, especially fast food chains. A primary example of this corporate globalized expansion is in the case of [[McDonald's]] regional menus which are adapted to "reflect different tastes and local traditions for every country in which we have restaurants".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why is the McDonald's menu different in different countries? |url=https://www.mcdonalds.com/gb/en-gb/help/faq/why-is-the-mcdonald-s-menu-different-in-different-countries.html |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=www.mcdonalds.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> In addition to catering to the regional food traditions, McDonald's also takes an additional consideration for religious beliefs and laws, as seen in the absence of beef and pork items on [[International availability of McDonald's products|Indian menus.]]

Beyond accounting for the cultural or religious differences in cuisine, some fusion foods have also been created to fit the taste preferences of local communities when ethnic or cultural foods from abroad were introduced. A hallmark example of this adaptation is in the popular sushi roll, the [[California roll]], which was created in America in the latter half of the 20th-century. A popular myth behind its composition containing crab, vegetables, and rice on the exterior cites the American aversion to foreign ingredients such as raw fish and seaweed.

These adjustments to foreign cuisines have both corporate and historical origins. In the example of McDonald's, the creation of regional menus can be seen as an economic choice to cater to the local palates and traditions. Another example of popularized fusion foods is the Korean stew ''[[budae-jjigae]]'', which was created by combining American ingredients of [[Spam (food)|Spam]], Vienna sausages, and sliced cheese, in a ''[[kimchi stew]]'' in the wake of the Korean War during which American tastes and influence were prevalent in Korea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hong |first=Ashley |date=2021-01-01 |title=Korean Fusion: Consuming a Globalized Korea Through Food and Music |url=https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/honors_theses/566 |journal=Honors Theses}}</ref>

=== Role of immigration ===
Immigrants play a significant role in shaping modern fusion cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-06 |title=Beyond the 'shame' narrative: How immigrants express culture through food |url=https://thevarsity.ca/2021/12/05/how-immigrants-express-culture-through-food/ |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=The Varsity |language=en-US}}</ref>  Food can often be a form of cultural expression that fosters a relationship with one's heritage, and fusion can emerge from creating foods from immigrant's adaptation of their own cultural food to the ingredients available in the host country or region. Immigrants may adapt the use of their cultural ingredients to local culinary traditions. For example, Vietnamese immigrants in the Southern United States used Vietnamese condiments in traditionally Creole cuisine, while adhering to [[Cuisine of the Southern United States|Southern cooking methods]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chen |first=Natasha |date=2023-05-13 |title=These Asian fusion cuisines tell an American story |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/asian-american-fusion-food-korean-bbq-viet-cajun-cec/index.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Similarly, the establishment of [[American Chinese cuisine]] has origins in Chinese-owned small businesses in American [[American ghettos|ghettos]] and [[Chinatowns in the United States|Chinatowns]], with many of these restaurants responsible for the adaptation of Chinese cuisine to American paletes.

Immigrants may also adapt their cultural flavors to the availability of ingredients in the host country: [[Indian Chinese cuisine|Indian-Chinese cuisine]] shaped by Chinese immigrants to [[British Raj|British-ruled India]] often uses Indian spice and flavor profiles such as [[garam masala]] and [[turmeric]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sankar |first=Amal |date=2017-12-01 |title=Creation of Indian–Chinese cuisine: Chinese food in an Indian city |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=268–273 |doi=10.1016/j.jef.2017.10.002 |issn=2352-6181|doi-access=free }}</ref> As such, immigrant-founded fusion cuisines also play a role in shaping food culture in the host country by introducing new flavors and ingredients.

Indian-Chinese cuisine is an example of how gradual migration and exchange across shared [[Border|international borders]] contributes to fusion cuisine. Similar cases are [[Korean Chinese cuisine|Sino-Korean]] food emerging from Chinese diasporas in Korea and shared borders between Korea and Northeastern China, and [[Mexican-American cuisine]] influenced by Mexican immigration to the Southwest United States that combines [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]], [[Indigenous cuisine of the Americas|Native American]], and European flavors.  

The convergence of two or more immigrant groups in a different host country can also lead to the emergence of fusion cuisines. [[History of Chinese Americans|Chinese]] and [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latin]] American immigrants to the United States have collaboratively founded fusion restaurants, serving dishes such as [[Dumpling|Chinese dumplings]] filled with [[Cochinita pibil|traditional slow-roasted pork]] from the Yucatàn Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-02-25 |title=Mexican-Chinese Food |url=https://www.bonappetit.com/test-kitchen/ingredients/article/mexican-chinese-food |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Bon Appétit |language=en-US}}</ref> In the United States, Asian fusion cuisine can constitute pan-Asian multi-ethnic ingredients such as rice, leading to a newfound form of "American" Asian food unfound in Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-02-21 |title=Asian Fusion Cuisine and the Tug and Pull of Foreign Identity |url=https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2017/02/asian-fusion-cuisine-tug-pull-foreign-identity/ |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Brown Political Review |language=en-US}}</ref> One popular example of pan-Asian fusion food found in North America is the rice bowl, often with ingredients commonly used together in Asia such as garlic with chili, stir-fried vegetables with tofu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pan-Asian Fried Rice |url=https://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/pan-asian-fried-rice-recipe-2013012 |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Food Network |language=en}}</ref> This illustrates the dynamic process between fusion food and its relationship with intercultural solidarity, influenced by both local and other immigrant cultures.

=== Modern fusion food ===
Japanese cooking techniques were combined with French techniques in 1970s France to create [[nouvelle cuisine]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fusion Cuisine {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/food/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fusion-cuisine |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

[[Wolfgang Puck]] is attributed as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine, with some dispute.<ref name=":0" /> However, his restaurant ''Chinois on Main'' was named after the term attributed to Richard Wing, who in the 1960s combined French and Chinese cooking at the former [[Imperial Dynasty (restaurant)|Imperial Dynasty]] restaurant in [[Hanford, California]].<ref name="NPR">{{cite news |last=Khokha |first=Sasha |date=2005-07-15 |title=In Rural California, an Imperial Dynasty Ends |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5298206}}</ref>

Chef [[Norman Van Aken]] was the first person to use the term "fusion cooking" as he delivered a speech at a symposium in Santa Fe in 1988. Soon journalist Regina Schrambling wrote about Van Aken's work and the term spread around the globe.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Esposito |first2=Shaylyn |title=Why We Have Norman Van Aken to Thank for the Way We Dine Out Today |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/norman-van-aken-thank-way-we-dine-out-today-180951365/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> Norman Van Aken ended his speech by discussing the history of fusion cuisine, such as the use of coffee in Italian cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Origins and history of Italian coffee |url=https://www.exclusivebrandstorino.com/guides/origins-and-history-of-coffee/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=Exclusive Brands Torino |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521154155/https://www.exclusivebrandstorino.com/guides/origins-and-history-of-coffee/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Van Aken related this to coffee being used in different desserts such as Calabrian [[ricotta]] with chocolate [[mousse]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=pvillanueva |date=2018-09-04 |title=On Fusion Cooking |url=https://normanvanaken.com/time-pieces/fusion-cooking/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=Norman Van Aken |language=en-US}}</ref>