Editing Fridtjof Nansen (section)

== Crossing of Greenland ==

=== Planning ===
[[File:A E Nordenskiold.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Head and shoulders portrait of a middle-aged man, facing half-left. He has dark, neatly brushed hair, a heavy moustache, and is wearing a dark, formal jacket.|[[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]], whose 1883 expedition had penetrated {{convert|160|km|mi nmi|sigfig=1}} into the [[Greenland]] [[Ice cap|icecap]]]]
The idea of an expedition across the Greenland icecap grew in Nansen's mind throughout his Bergen years. In 1887, after the submission of his [[doctoral thesis]], he finally began organising this project. Before then, the two most significant penetrations of the Greenland interior had been those of [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]] in 1883, and [[Robert Peary]] in 1886. Both had set out from [[Disko Bay]] on the western coast, and had travelled about {{convert|160|km|mi|sigfig=1}} eastward before turning back.<ref>Huntford, pp. 73–75</ref> By contrast, Nansen proposed to travel from east to west, ending rather than beginning his trek at Disko Bay. A party setting out from the inhabited west coast would, he reasoned, have to make a return trip, as no ship could be certain of reaching the dangerous east coast and picking them up.<ref>Reynolds, pp. 44–45</ref> By starting from the east—assuming that a landing could be made there—Nansen's would be a one-way journey towards a populated area. The party would have no line of retreat to a safe base; the only way to go would be forward, a situation that fitted Nansen's philosophy completely.<ref>Scott, pp. 44–46</ref>

Nansen rejected the complex organisation and heavy manpower of other Arctic ventures, and instead planned his expedition for a small party of six. Supplies would be [[manhauling|manhauled]] on specially designed lightweight sledges. Much of the equipment, including sleeping bags, clothing and cooking stoves, also needed to be designed from scratch.<ref>Huntford, pp. 79–81</ref> These plans received a generally poor reception in the press;<ref>Scott, p. 46</ref> one critic had no doubt that "if [the] scheme be attempted in its present form ... the chances are ten to one that he will ... uselessly throw his own and perhaps others' lives away".<ref>Nansen (1890), p. 8</ref> The Norwegian parliament refused to provide financial support, believing that such a potentially risky undertaking should not be encouraged. The project was eventually launched with a donation from a Danish businessman, Augustin Gamél; the rest came mainly from small contributions from Nansen's countrymen, through a fundraising effort organised by students at the university.<ref>Nansen (1890), p. vii</ref>

Despite the adverse publicity, Nansen received numerous applications from would-be adventurers. He wanted expert skiers, and attempted to recruit from the skiers of the Telemark region, but his approaches were rebuffed.<ref>Huntford, p. 78</ref> Nordenskiöld had advised Nansen that [[Sami people]], from Finnmark in the far north of Norway, were expert snow travellers, so Nansen recruited a pair, [[Samuel Balto]] and [[Ole Nielsen Ravna]]. The remaining places went to [[Otto Sverdrup]], a former sea-captain who had more recently worked as a forester; [[Oluf Christian Dietrichson]], an army officer, and [[Kristian Kristiansen (explorer)|Kristian Kristiansen]], an acquaintance of Sverdrup's. All had experience of outdoor life in extreme conditions, and were experienced skiers.<ref name="Huntford87" /> Just before the party's departure, Nansen attended a formal examination at the university, which had agreed to receive his doctoral thesis. In accordance with custom, he was required to defend his work before appointed examiners acting as [[devil's advocate|"devil's advocates"]]. He left before knowing the outcome of this process.<ref name="Huntford87">Huntford, pp. 87–92</ref>

=== Expedition ===
[[File:Nansen Greenland Crossing Map.png|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=Map of Southern Greenland with traced lines that signify expedition routes|Greenland expedition, July–October 1888{{legend-line|2px red solid|Planned route from [[Sermilik]] to [[Christianhaab]]}}{{legend-line|2px blue solid|Approach and landing on 29 July}}{{legend-line|2px green solid|Actual route to [[Godthaab]], 15 August&nbsp;– 3 October}}]]

The sealer [[Jason (ship)|''Jason'']] picked up Nansen's party on 3 June 1888 from the Icelandic port of [[Ísafjörður]]. They sighted the Greenland coast a week later, but thick [[drift ice|pack ice]] hindered progress. With the coast still {{convert|20|km}} away, Nansen decided to launch the small boats. They were within sight of [[Sermilik|Sermilik Fjord]] on 17 July; Nansen believed it would offer a route up the icecap.<ref name="Huntford97">Huntford 2001, pp. 97–99.</ref>

The expedition left ''Jason'' "in good spirits and with the highest hopes of a fortunate result."<ref name="Huntford97" /> Days of extreme frustration followed as they drifted south. Weather and sea conditions prevented them from reaching the shore. They spent most time camping on the ice itself—it was too dangerous to launch the boats.

By 29 July, they found themselves {{convert|380|km}} south of the point where they left the ship. That day they finally reached land but were too far south to begin the crossing. Nansen ordered the team back into the boats after a brief rest and to begin rowing north.<ref>Reynolds 1949, pp. 48–52.</ref> The party battled northward along the coast through the ice floes for the next 12&nbsp;days. They encountered a large Inuit encampment on the first day, near Cape Steen Bille.<ref>Huntford 2001, pp. 105–110.</ref> Occasional contacts with the nomadic native population continued as the journey progressed.

[[File:NansenBoatsGreenland.png|thumb|upright=1.1|left|Boats and supplies were stored on Greenland's east coast]]
The party reached [[Umivik Bay]] on 11 August, after covering {{convert|200|km}}. Nansen decided they needed to begin the crossing. Although they were still far south of his intended starting place, the season was becoming too advanced.<ref>Scott, p. 84.</ref> After they landed at Umivik, they spent the next four days preparing for their journey. They set out on the evening of 15 August, heading north-west towards [[Christianhaab]] on the western shore of Disko Bay—{{convert|600|km|sigfig=2}} away.<ref>Huntford 2001, pp. 115–116.</ref>

Over the next few days, the party struggled to ascend. The inland ice had a treacherous surface with many hidden [[crevasses]] and the weather was bad. Progress stopped for three days because of violent storms and continuous rain one time.<ref>Nansen 1890, p. 250.</ref> The last ship was due to leave Christianhaab by mid-September. They would not be able to reach it in time, Nansen concluded on 26 August. He ordered a change of course due west, towards [[Nuuk|Godthaab]], a shorter journey by at least {{convert|150|km|sigfig=2}}. The rest of the party, according to Nansen, "hailed the change of plan with acclamation."<ref>Nansen 1890, pp. 267–270.</ref>

They continued climbing until 11 September and reached a height of {{convert|2719|m}} above sea level. Temperatures on the summit of the icecap dropped to {{convert|-45|C}} at night. From then on, the downward slope made travelling easier. Yet, the terrain was rugged and the weather remained hostile.<ref>Reynolds 1949, pp. 61–62.</ref> Progress was slow: fresh snowfalls made dragging the sledges like pulling them through sand.

On 26 September, they battled their way down the edge of a [[fjord]] westward towards Godthaab. Sverdrup constructed a makeshift boat out of parts of the sledges, willows, and their tent. Three days later, Nansen and Sverdrup began the last stage of the journey, rowing down the fjord.<ref>Reynolds 1949, pp. 64–67.</ref>

On 3 October, they reached [[Godthaab]], where the Danish town representative greeted them. He first informed Nansen that he had secured his doctorate, a matter that "could not have been more remote from [Nansen's] thoughts at that moment."<ref>Nansen 1890, p. 363.</ref> The team accomplished their crossing in 49&nbsp;days. Throughout the journey, they maintained meteorological and geographical and other records relating to the previously unexplored interior.<ref name="Ryne" />

The rest of the team arrived in Godthaab on 12 October. Nansen soon learned no ship was likely to call at Godthaab until the following spring. Still, they were able to send letters back to Norway via a boat leaving [[Ivigtut]] at the end of October. He and his party spent the next seven months in Greenland.<ref>Reynolds 1949, pp. 69–70.</ref> On 15 April 1889, the Danish ship ''Hvidbjørnen'' finally entered the harbour. Nansen recorded: "It was not without sorrow that we left this place and these people, among whom we had enjoyed ourselves so well."<ref>Nansen 1890, pp. 442–444.</ref>