Editing First Italo-Ethiopian War (section)

==Course of the war==
[[File:Oreste Baratieri.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Oreste Baratieri]]]]
In December 1894, [[Bahta Hagos]] led a rebellion against the Italians in [[Akkele Guzay]], claiming support of [[Ras Mengesha Yohannes]]. Units of General [[Oreste Baratieri]]'s army under Major [[Pietro Toselli]] crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta at the [[Battle of Halai]]. Baratieri suspected that Mengesha would invade Eritrea, and met him at the [[Battle of Coatit]] in January 1895. The victorious Italians chased the retreating Mengesha, defeating him again at the [[battle of Senafe]]. Baratieri promptly marched into Adigrat on March 8 and occupied [[Adwa]] on April 2. He issued a proclamation, annexing [[Tigray province]] into [[Italian Eritrea]], then moved into [[Mekelle]] and fortified an old church above the town's spur.{{sfn|Henze|2000|p=167}}<ref>{{harvnb|Berkeley|1969}}</ref> At this point, Emperor Menelik turned to [[France]], offering a treaty of alliance; the French response was to abandon the Emperor in order to secure Italian approval of the [[Treaty of Bardo]] which would secure French control of [[Tunisia]]. Virtually alone, on 17 September 1895, Emperor Menelik issued a proclamation calling up the men of Abyssinia to join his army at [[Were Ilu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Marcus|1995|p=160}}</ref> Leaders of every region in Ethiopia responded to Menelik's call to arms and would assemble an army of over 100,000 men before marching north to face the Italian invaders.{{sfn|Henze|2000|p=167}}

The next clash came at [[Battle of Amba Alagi (1895)|Amba Alagi]] on 7 December 1895, when [[Ras Makonnen]] brought up his largely [[Shewa]]n army to the slopes of Amba Alagi in southern Tigray. They were confronted by Major [[Pietro Toselli]] with 2,000 Eritreans and local Tigrayan askaris that had joined the Italians for various reasons. Makonnen was joined by [[Ras Mengesha Yohannes]] and [[Welle Betul]], and together they overran the Italian positions on the natural fortress, killing Major Toselli and most of his men. General [[Giuseppe Arimondi]], who had just arrived to reinforce Toselli, was barely able to escape and retreated with 400 survivors to the unfinished Italian fort at [[Mekele]]. Arimondi left a small garrison of approximately 1,150 askaris and 200 Italians there, commanded by Major [[Giuseppe Galliano]], and took the bulk of his troops to [[Adigrat]], where General [[Oreste Baratieri]] was concentrating the Italian army.{{sfn|Henze|2000|p=167}}

The first Ethiopian troops reached Mekele in the following days. Ras Makonnen surrounded the fort at [[Mekelle]] on 18 December. By the first days of January, Emperor [[Menelik II]], accompanied by his Queen [[Taytu Betul]], had led their massive imperial army into Tigray and joined [[Ras Makonnen]] at Mekele on 6 January 1896.<ref>{{harvnb|Prouty|1986|pp=144–151}}</ref> While Italian journalists filled sensational reports of their brave country holding out against "war-crazed black barbarians",  Menelik had established contact with the Italian commander and gave him the opportunity to leave peacefully to [[Adigrat]]. The commander was defiant until the Ethiopians cut off the water supply to the fort and on January 21, with permission from the Italian high command, he agreed to surrender. Menelik allowed them to leave Mekelle with their weapons, and even provided the defeated Italians mules and pack animals to rejoin Baratieri. While some historians read this generous act as a sign that Emperor Menelik still hoped for a peaceful resolution to the war, Harold Marcus points out that this escort allowed him a tactical advantage: "Menelik craftily managed to establish himself in [[Hawzen|Hawzien]], at [[Gendepata]], near Adwa, where the mountain passes were not guarded by Italian fortifications."<ref>{{harvnb|Marcus|1995|p=167}}</ref>{{sfn|Henze|2000|p=168}}

Menelik decided against attacking the Italian headquarters at [[Adigrat]] and instead marched west towards the plateau of [[Adwa]]. Baratieri feared that the Emperor intended to invade Eritrea and hence abandoned his positions at Adigrat and moved towards the area. On February 28, 1896, Baratieri called an assembly of all his generals and informed them that their provisions would run out, and asked if the army should retreat back to [[Asmara]] or attack Menelik's army. All of his generals were opposed to retreat. Baratieri decided to rely on surprise by making up for his deficiency in manpower and issued a battle order on the next day.{{sfn|Henze|2000|p=169}}

=== Battle of Adwa ===
{{Main|Battle of Adwa}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De slag bij Adua TMnr 5956-2.jpg |thumb|Painting depicting the Battle of Adwa]]
The decisive battle of the war was the [[Battle of Adwa]] on March 1, 1896, which took place in the mountainous country north of the actual town of [[Adwa]] (or Adowa). The Italian army comprised four brigades totaling approximately 17,700 men, with fifty-six artillery pieces; the Ethiopian army comprised several brigades numbering between 73,000 and 120,000 men (80–100,000 with firearms: according to [[Richard Pankhurst (academic)|Richard Pankhurst]], the Ethiopians were armed with approximately 100,000 rifles of which about half were [[Quick-firing gun|quick-firing]]),<ref name="p190" /> with almost fifty artillery pieces. General Oreste Baratieri underestimated the size of the Ethiopian force, predicating that Menelik could only field 30,000 men;{{sfn|Perry|2005|p=205}} also, the Ethiopians were better armed, being equipped with thousands of modern rifles and Hotchkiss artillery guns together with ammunition and shells which were superior to the Italian rifles and artillery.{{sfn|Perry|2005|p=205}} Menelik had ensured that his infantry and artillerymen were properly trained in their use, giving the Ethiopians a crucial advantage as the Hotchkiss artillery could fire more rapidly than the Italian artillery.{{sfn|Perry|2005|p=205}}

On the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March, three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped. However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and by dawn were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain. Unbeknownst to General Baratieri, Emperor Menelik knew his troops had exhausted the ability of the local peasants to support them and had planned to break camp the next day. The Emperor had risen early when spies from [[Ras Alula]] brought him news that the Italians were advancing. The Emperor summoned the separate armies of his nobles and with the Empress [[Taytu Betul]] beside him, ordered his forces forward.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/sean_mclachlan_armies_of_the_adowa_campaign_1896book4you.pdf |title=Sean McLachlan, page 15 "Armies of the Adowa Campaign 1896: The Italian Disaster in Ethiopia" |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-date=16 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516155451/http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/sean_mclachlan_armies_of_the_adowa_campaign_1896book4you.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lewis-117">Lewis, ''Fashoda'', p. 117.</ref>

The Italian forces were hit by wave after wave of attacks, until Menelik released his reserve of 25,000 men, which overran an Italian brigade. Another brigade was cut off, and destroyed by a cavalry charge. The last two brigades were destroyed piecemeal in a devastating rout. By noon, the Italian survivors were in full retreat.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/sean_mclachlan_armies_of_the_adowa_campaign_1896book4you.pdf |title=Sean McLachlan, page 15 "Armies of the Adowa Campaign 1896: The Italian Disaster in Ethiopia" |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-date=16 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516155451/http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/sean_mclachlan_armies_of_the_adowa_campaign_1896book4you.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pankhurst-1998">{{harvnb|Pankhurst|2001|pp=191–192}}</ref>

[[File:Italian prisoners Ethiopia 1897.jpg|thumb|Italian prisoners of war waiting for repatriation]]

George Berkeley records that the Italian casualties were 6,133 men killed: 261 officers, 2,918 white NCOs and privates, 954 permanently missing, and about 2,000 ascari. Another 1,428 were wounded – 470 Italians (including 31 officers) and 958 ascari. With 1,865 Italians and 1,000–2,000 ascaris taken prisoner.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berkeley |first1=George |title=The Campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik |journal=The Geographical Journal |date=1903 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=345|doi=10.2307/1775411 |jstor=1775411 |bibcode=1903GeogJ..21..175B |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1954915 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Sean|last=Mclachlan|page=22|title=Armies of the Adowa Campaign 1896|date=20 September 2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84908-457-4}}</ref> Richard Caulk estimates that the number of Italians killed were 300 officers, 4,600 Italian rank and 1,000 askari for a total of 5,900 dead. As well as and 1,000 of those who escaped wounded and at least 2,000 captured. Citing contemporary figures, Caulk records Ethiopian losses to be 3,886 killed and 6,000 wounded.<ref name=JHY>{{cite book|title="Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia (1876-1896) |last=Caulk |first=Richard |year=2002 |pages=563, 566–567 |place=Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden}}</ref> Whereas Berkeley estimates Ethiopian losses to be 7,000 killed and 10,000 wounded.<ref name="Uhlig-109">von Uhlig, ''Encyclopaedia'', p. 109.</ref><ref name = "Pankhurst-1998"/> In their flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport.<ref name="Pankhurst-1998"/> As Paul B. Henze notes, "Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated while Menelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeing Italians."{{sfn|Henze|2000|p=170}} 800 captured [[Eritrean Ascari]], regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated, some were even castrated.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/docannexe/image/14887/img-12.jpg|title=Photo of some of the Eritrean Ascari mutilated|access-date=3 March 2019|archive-date=23 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235457/https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/docannexe/image/14887/img-12.jpg|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Sean|last=McLachlan|page=23|title=Armies of the Adowa Campaign 1896|date=20 September 2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84908-457-4}}</ref> The Italian prisoners were generally treated better. Although, about 70 Italian prisoners were massacred in retaliation for the death of [[Bashah Aboye]], the officer responsible for the massacre was supposedly imprisoned by Menelik.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ilg |first=Alfred |author-link=Alfred Ilg |editor-last=Tafla |editor-first=Bairu |date=2000 |title=Ethiopian records of the Menilek era: selected Amharic documents from the Nachlass of Alfred Ilg, 1884-1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r7mKpjg0RDwC&dq=abboyye+adwa&pg=PA460 |work=Äthiopistische Forschungen |volume=54 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |page=460 |isbn=9783447042581 |issn=0170-3196}}</ref><ref>Richard Caulk, ''"Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia (1876–1896)'', p. 568</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Sean|last=McLachlan|page=23|title=Armies of the Adowa Campaign 1896|date=20 September 2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84908-457-4}}</ref>