Editing Eunuch (section)

==Asia and Africa==
In [[History of Thailand|Siam]] (modern Thailand) [[Indian Muslims]] from the [[Coromandel Coast]] served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court.<ref name="Peletz 2009 p. 73">Peletz (2009), p. 73 {{Google books|BFXpi5ZKKF8C|Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times|page=73}}</ref><ref name="Peletz p. 73">Peletz (2009), p. 73 {{Google books|-YnQJXxspJUC|Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times|page=73}}</ref> The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit the court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard.<ref>Peletz (2009), p. 75 {{Google books|BFXpi5ZKKF8C|Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times|page=75}}</ref><ref>Peletz (2009), p. 75 {{Google books|-YnQJXxspJUC|Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times|page=75}}</ref>

In Imperial China, eunuchs managed the imperial household and were involved in state affairs, often wielding significant political power.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=June 1997 |title=Shih-Shan Henry Tsai. &lt;italic&gt;The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty&lt;/italic&gt;. (Suny Series in Chinese Local Studies.) Albany: State University of New York Press. 1996. Pp. xi, 290. $18.95 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/102.3.866 |journal=The American Historical Review |doi=10.1086/ahr/102.3.866 |issn=1937-5239}}</ref>

Sir [[Henry Yule]] saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs during the [[Konbaung dynasty]] period of Burma (modern [[Myanmar]]) while on a diplomatic mission.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yegar |first1=Moshe |title=The Muslims of Burma |date=1972 |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3447013574 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzxuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA10 |access-date=24 February 2020}}</ref>

===China===
{{main|Eunuchs in China}}
{{category see also|Chinese eunuchs}}
[[File:Prince Zhanghuai's tomb, eunuchs.JPG|thumb|210px|A group of eunuchs. Mural from the tomb of the prince [[Li Xian (prince)|Zhanghuai]], 706 AD.]]
In China, castration included [[Penis removal|removal of the penis]] as well as the testicles (see [[emasculation]]). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuX-MGTZnJoC&pg=PA248 |title=Encyclopedia of birth control|author=Vern L. Bullough|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-57607-181-2|page=248|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/84/12/4324/2864451 |title=Long-Term Consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts &#124; The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism &#124; Oxford Academic |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |publisher=Academic.oup.com |date= December 1999|volume=84 |issue=12 |pages=4324–4331 |doi=10.1210/jcem.84.12.6206 |access-date=2021-10-28 |last1=Wilson |first1=Jean D. |last2=Roehrborn |first2=Claus |pmid=10599682 }}</ref>

Eunuchs existed in China from about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the [[Qin dynasty]].<ref>Melissa S. Dale, ''Inside the World of the Eunuch'' (2018, {{ISBN|9888455753}}), page 14.</ref><ref>Victor T. Cheney, ''A Brief History Of Castration: Second Edition'' (2006, {{ISBN|1467816663}}), page 14.</ref> From those ancient times until the [[Sui dynasty]], castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the [[Five Punishments]]) and a means of gaining employment in the imperial service. Certain eunuchs, such as the Ming dynasty official [[Zheng He]],{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the [[Grand Secretaries]]. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials.<ref>For an extended discussion see Mitamura Taisuke,''Chinese Eunuchs: The Structure of Intimate Politics'' tr. Charles A. Pomeroy, Tokyo 1970, a short, condensed version of Mitamura's original book =三田村泰助, ''宦官'', Chuko Shinsho, Tokyo 1963</ref> As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patterson |first=Orlando |url=https://cominsitu.files.wordpress.com/2020/10/orlando-patterson-slavery-and-social-death_-a-comparative-study-1985.pdf |title=Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1982 |isbn=9780674916135 |page=325 |chapter=Chapter 11: The Ultimate Slave |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725174317/https://cominsitu.files.wordpress.com/2020/10/orlando-patterson-slavery-and-social-death_-a-comparative-study-1985.pdf|archive-date=25 July 2021 }}</ref>

The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his ''History of Government'', [[Samuel Finer]] points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. [[Ray Huang]] argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the [[bureaucracy]]. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huang|first=Ray|title=1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline|year=1981|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-02518-1|url=https://archive.org/details/1587yearofnosign00huan}}</ref>

The number of eunuchs in imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last imperial eunuch, [[Sun Yaoting]], died in December 1996.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/20/world/the-death-of-the-last-emperor-s-last-eunuch.html|title=The Death of the Last Emperor's Last Eunuch|last=Faison|first=Seth|date=1996-12-20|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-02-04|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

===Indian subcontinent===
====Eunuchs in Indian sultanates (before the Mughals)====
Eunuchs were frequently employed in imperial palaces by some Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of the royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of them attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was [[Malik Kafur]]. Eunuchs in imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch ([[Urdu]]: ''Khwaja Saras''), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/txt_akbar_birbal.html|title=Akbar-Birbal Anecdotes|access-date=2 November 2008|archive-date=16 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516160237/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/txt_akbar_birbal.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharatvani.org/books/mssmi/ch9.htm|title=Ghilmans and Eunuchs|access-date=2 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227153331/http://www.bharatvani.org/books/mssmi/ch9.htm|archive-date=27 December 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====The hijra of South Asia====
{{Main|Hijra (South Asia)}}
[[File:Hidras of Panscheel Park-New Delhi-1994-2.jpg|thumb|[[Hijra (South Asia)|Hijras]] of Delhi, India]]

Hijra, a [[Hindi]] term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call [[transvestites]] or [[transgender]] women (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a [[third gender]]). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the ancient ''[[Kama Sutra]]'', which refers to people of a "third sex" (''tritiya-prakriti'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Gender identity – Developing a statistical standard |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/classifications/expertgroup/egm2015/ac289-Bk2.PDF |website=UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Statistics Department |publisher=United Nations |access-date=23 February 2020}}</ref> Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the vast majority do not.

They usually dress in [[sari]]s or [[shalwar kameez]] (traditional garbs worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh |website=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=August 20, 2003 |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/bangladesh0803/index.htm |access-date=April 24, 2021 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305164104/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/bangladesh0803/index.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.countercurrents.org/gen-narrain141003.htm |title=Being a Eunuch |last=Narrain |first=Siddarth |date=October 14, 2003 |website=Counter Currents |access-date=April 24, 2021}}</ref> Hijra tend to have few options for earning a wage, with many turning to sex work and others performing ritualistic songs and dances.<ref>{{cite journal| first=Jeff| last=Roy| date=2015|volume=20|journal=Ethnomusicology Review|title=The "Dancing Queens": Negotiating Hijra Pehchān from India's Streets onto the Global Stage |url= https://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/journal/volume/20/piece/872|access-date=2021-03-25}}</ref> They are integral to several Hindu ceremonies, such as dance programs at marriage ceremonies. They may also earn a living by going uninvited to large ceremonies such as weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away.<ref>{{cite news |first=Baldev |last=Chauhan |date=24 July 2003 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3092563.stm |title=Eunuchs 'cut off man's penis |website=BBC News |access-date=April 24, 2021}}</ref> The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money, with begging typically accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion—they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSDEL3025420061110 |title=Dancing eunuchs taxing red-faced shopkeepers. Reuters. November 10, 2006 |work=Reuters |date=10 November 2006 |access-date=6 November 2010}}</ref> Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the [[Shemale]] Foundation Pakistan.

===Korea===
The eunuchs of Korea, called {{langx|ko|내시, 內侍|naesi}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1166603&cid=200000000&categoryId=200000209|title=내시}}</ref> were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in [[Goryeosa]] ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the [[Goryeo]] dynasty period. In 1392, with the founding of the [[Joseon dynasty]], the ''naesi'' system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of ''Naesi''".<ref name="Naesi">{{cite web |url=http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=367722 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130129153043/http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=367722 |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 January 2013 |title=내시 |website=네이버 백과사전 |language=Korean |access-date=April 24, 2021 }}</ref>

The ''naesi'' system included two ranks, those of {{langx|ko|상선, 尙膳|Sangseon|translation=Chief of Naesi}}, who held the official title of senior second rank, and {{langx|ko|내관, 內官|Naegwan|translation=Common official naesi}}, both of which held rank as officers. A total of 140 ''naesi'' served the palace in the Joseon dynasty period. They also took the exam on [[Confucianism]] every month.<ref name="Naesi"/> The ''naesi'' system was repealed in 1894 following [[Gabo reform]].

During the [[Yuan dynasty]] of China, eunuchs became a desirable commodity for [[tributes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/sp/0910/nhw/nhwlog.html|title=WHKMLA : Eunuchs in East Asian History|website=zum.de}}</ref><ref name="CampbellMiers2009 2">{{cite book|author1=Gwyn Campbell|author2=Suzanne Miers|author3=Joseph C. Miller|title=Children in Slavery through the Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3Y2PTI_vYYC&pg=PA137 |date=8 September 2009|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-4339-2|page=137}}</ref>

Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. In one historical study of court records, going back to 1392, researchers surmised that the average lifespan of eunuchs appeared to have been 70.0 ± 1.76 years, and that this was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=JinMin |first1=Kyung |title=The lifespan of Korean eunuchs |journal=Current Biology |date=25 September 2012 |volume=22 |issue=18 |pages=R792–R793 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.06.036 |pmid=23017989 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2012CBio...22.R792M }}</ref> However, the quality of this evidence is lacking, and in a letter to the editor of the journal [[Gerontology (journal)|Gerontology]], Éric Le Bourg notes that this single study should not be relied upon to conclude that eunuchs in fact lived longer than men, even in this Korean case.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Le Bourg |first=Éric |date=2015-06-30 |title=No Ground for Advocating that Korean Eunuchs Lived Longer than Intact Men |url=https://karger.com/ger/article-abstract/62/1/69/148247/No-Ground-for-Advocating-that-Korean-Eunuchs-Lived?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Gerontology |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=69–70 |doi=10.1159/000435854 |issn=0304-324X}}</ref>

===Vietnam===
{{main|Eunuchs in Vietnam}}
The Vietnamese adopted the [[Eunuchs in China|eunuch system and castration techniques from China]]. Records show that the Vietnamese performed [[castration]] in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off.<ref>{{cite news|title= Bí mật về thái giám trong cung triều Nguyễn|others= Theo Công An Nhân Dân|url= https://znews.vn/bi-mat-ve-thai-giam-trong-cung-trieu-nguyen-post336065.html|newspaper= Zing News|date= 18 July 2013|access-date= 27 July 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130721110844/http://news.zing.vn/xa-hoi/bi-mat-ve-thai-giam-trong-cung-trieu-nguyen/a336065.html|archive-date= 21 July 2013|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into the urethra to allow urination during healing.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bí mật về thái giám trong cung triều Nguyễn|author=Theo Công An Nhân Dân|url=https://znews.vn/bi-mat-ve-thai-giam-trong-cung-trieu-nguyen-post336065.html|newspaper=Zing news|date=18 July 2013|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721110844/http://news.zing.vn/xa-hoi/bi-mat-ve-thai-giam-trong-cung-trieu-nguyen/a336065.html|archive-date=21 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=K. W. |title=A history of the Vietnamese |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521875868 |page=121}}</ref>

===West Asia and North Africa===
====Ancient====
The four-thousand-year-old Egyptian [[Execration texts|Execration Texts]] threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bresciani |first=Edda |date=1997-06-23 |chapter=Chapter&nbsp;8: Foreigners |title=The Egyptians |page=222 |editor-last=Donadoni |editor-first=Sergio |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-15556-2 |language=en |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MCTbJ0VozGQC&pg=PA222}}</ref>

Castration was sometimes punitive; under [[Assyrian law]], homosexual acts were punishable by castration.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mesopotamian Law and Homosexuality |website=Internet History Sourcebooks Project |publisher=Fordham University |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/meso-law.asp}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Marten |last1=Stol |display-authors=etal |year=2016 |chapter=Chapter 31 – The Middle Assyrian Law-Book about Women |title=Women in the Ancient Near East |page=670 |publisher=De Gruyter}}</ref>

[[File:Limestone wall relief depicting an Assyrian royal attendant, a eunuch. From the Central Palace at Nimrud, Iraq, 744-727&nbsp;BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg|thumb|Limestone wall relief depicting an Assyrian royal attendant, a eunuch. From the Central Palace at Nimrud, Iraq, 744–727&nbsp;BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.]]
Eunuchs were familiar figures in the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] ({{langx|akk|ša rēš šarri izuzzū}} "the one who stands by the head of the king", often abbreviated as {{lang|akk|ša rēš}};  {{Circa|850}} until 622&nbsp;BCE)<ref>{{cite book |last=Ringrose |first=Kathryn |title=The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2003 |page=8}}</ref> and in the court of the Egyptian [[pharaoh]]s (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with [[Cleopatra VII]], 30&nbsp;BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used as [[regent]]s for underage heirs to the throne, as it seems to be the case for the [[Syro-Hittite states|Syro-Hittite state]] of [[Carchemish]].<ref name="Trevor Bryce 2012, p. 95">{{cite book |first=Trevor |last=Bryce |year=2012 |title=The World of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A political and military history |page=95 |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=New York, NY}}</ref>

Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Orlando |last=Patterson |year=1982 |title=Slavery and Social Death |page=315 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674810839}} {{ISBN|0-674-81083-X}}</ref> Eunuchs (called {{langx|arc|סריס|translit=səris}}, an Assyrian loanword) held powerful positions in the Achaemenid court. The eunuch [[Bagoas]] (not to be confused with [[Bagoas (courtier)|Alexander's Bagoas]]) was the [[vizier]] of [[Artaxerxes III]] and [[Artaxerxes IV]], and was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns until he was killed by [[Darius III]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Diod. |title=[no title cited] |at=xvi. 50 |postscript=;}} {{full citation needed |date=January 2021}} cf. {{cite book |author=Didymus |title=Comm.}} in {{cite book |author=Demosth. |title=Phil. |at=vi. 5}} {{full citation needed |date=January 2021}}</ref>

Marmon (1995) writes "[[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such as ''jamil'' (beautiful), ''wasim'' (handsome), and ''ahsan'' (the best, most beautiful) or ''akmal'' (the most perfect)."<ref>{{cite book |last=Marmon |first=Shaun Elizabeth |year=1995 |chapter=More Exalted than the Service of Kings |title=Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society |page=66 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195071016 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHbmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66}}</ref>

====Arabian Peninsula====

The custom of using eunuchs as servants for women inside the Islamic [[harem]]s had a preceding example in the life of [[Muhammad]] himself, who used the eunuch Mabur as a servant in the house of his own slave concubine [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]]; both of them slaves from Egypt.<ref name="Taef El-Ahari 2019">Taef El-Azhari, E. (2019). Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661-1257. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press.</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2025}}
Eunuchs were for a long time used in relatively small numbers, exclusively inside harems, but the use of eunuchs expanded significantly when eunuchs started being used also for other offices within service and administration outside of the harem, a use which expanded gradually during the [[slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate]] and had its breakthrough during the [[slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate]].<ref name="Taef El-Ahari 2019" /> During the Abbasid period, eunuchs became a permanent institution inside the Islamic harems after the model of the [[Abbasid harem]], such as in the [[Fatimid harem]], [[Safavid harem]] and the [[Qajar harem]].

For several centuries, Muslim Eunuchs were tasked with honored roles in [[Medina]] and [[Mecca]].<ref name="Marmon 1995">{{Cite book|last=Marmon|first=Shaun Elizabeth|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/191935606|title=Eunuchs and sacred boundaries in Islamic society|date=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=1-4294-0638-0|location=New York|oclc=191935606}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2025}} They are thought to have been instituted in their role there by [[Saladin]], but perhaps earlier.<ref name="Marmon 1995"/><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Eunuchs |journal=Brill: Encyclopaedia of Islam |date=July 2015|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_27821|language=en|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_27821}}</ref> Their tasks included caring for the [[Green Dome|Prophet's Tomb]], maintaining borders between males and females where needed, and keeping order in the sacred spaces.<ref name="Marmon 1995"/> They were highly respected in their time and remained there throughout the Ottoman Empire's control of the area and afterward.<ref name="Marmon 1995"/> In the present day, it is reported that only a few remain.<ref>{{Cite web|title='The Guardians' of the Sacred Chamber - BahareMadinah.com|url=https://baharemadinah.com/guardians-sacred-chamber/|access-date=2021-12-11|language=en-US}}</ref>

Eunuchs were an active component in the [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|slave market of the Islamic world]] until the early 20th-century for service in [[harem]] as well as in the corps of mostly African eunuchs, known as the [[Aghawat]], who guarded the Prophet Muhammad's tomb in Medina and the Kaʿba in Mecca.<ref>Hathaway, J.  (2024, June 18). Eunuchs. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Retrieved 21 Aug. 2024, from https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-856.</ref>
Most slaves trafficked to Hijaz came there via the [[Red Sea slave trade]]. Small African boys were castrated before they were trafficked to the Hijaz, where they were bought at the slave market by the Chief Agha to become eunuch novices.<ref>Marmon, S. (1995). Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society. Ukraina: Oxford University Press. 105</ref>
It was noted that boys from Africa were still openly bought to become eunuch novices to serve at Medina in 1895.<ref>Junne, G. H. (2016). The Black Eunuchs of the Ottoman Empire: Networks of Power in the Court of the Sultan. Storbritannien: Bloomsbury Publishing. 12</ref>
In Medina there was a part of town named Harat al-Aghawat (Neighborhood of the Aghas).<ref>Hathaway, J. (2018). The Chief Eunuch of the Ottoman Harem: From African Slave to Power-Broker. Indien: Cambridge University Press. 123</ref>
The [[Red Sea slave trade]] became gradually more suppressed during the 20th-century, and [[Slavery in Saudi Arabia]] was abolished in 1962. In 1979, the last Agha was appointed. In 1990 seventeen eunuchs remained.<ref>Marmon, S. (1995). Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society. Ukraina: Oxford University Press. IX</ref>

====Fatimid Caliphate====
{{further|Slavery in the Fatimid Caliphate}}
In the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] [[Fatimid Caliphate]] (909–1171 CE), eunuchs played major roles in the politics of the caliphate's court within the institution of [[slavery in the Fatimid Caliphate]]. These eunuchs were normally purchased from slave auctions and typically came from a variety of Arab and non-Arab minority ethnic groups. In some cases, they were purchased from various noble families in the empire, which would then connect those families to the caliph. Generally, though, foreign slaves were preferred, described as the "ideal servants".<ref>El Cheikh, N. M. (2017). Guarding the harem, protecting the state: Eunuchs in a fourth/tenth-century Abbasid court. In Celibate and Childless Men in Power (pp. 65–78). Routledge.</ref>

Once enslaved, eunuchs were often placed into positions of significant power in one of four areas: the service of the male members of the court; the service of the [[Fatimid harem]], or female members of the court; administrative and clerical positions; and military service.<ref>Gul, R., Zafar, N., & Naznin, S. (2021). Legal and Social Status of Eunuchs Islam and Pakistan. sjesr, 4(2), 515–523.</ref> For example, during the Fatimid occupation of Cairo, Egyptian eunuchs controlled military garrisons (''shurta'') and marketplaces (''hisba''), two positions beneath only the city magistrate in power. However, the most influential Fatimid eunuchs were the ones in direct service to the caliph and the royal household as chamberlains, treasurers, governors, and attendants.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Höfert |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Mesley |editor-first2=M. M. |editor-last3=Tolino |editor-first3=S |title=Celibate and Childless Men in Power: Ruling Eunuchs and Bishops in the Pre-Modern World |date=15 August 2017 |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |isbn=9781315566658|language=English}}</ref> Their direct proximity to the caliph and his household afforded them a great amount of political sway. One eunuch, [[Jawdhar]], became ''[[hujja]]'' to Imam-Caliph [[al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)|al-Qa'im]], a sacred role in Shia Islam entrusted with the imam's choice of successor upon his death.<ref>Marmon, S. E. (1995). Eunuchs and sacred boundaries in Islamic society. Oxford University Press on Demand.</ref>

There were several other eunuchs of high regard in Fatimid history, mainly being [[Rifq|Abu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim]] and [[Barjawan|Abu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh]].<ref>Tolino, S. (2017). Eunuchs in the Fatimid empire: Ambiguities, gender and sacredness. In Celibate and Childless Men in Power (pp. 246–267). Routledge.</ref> Rifq was an African eunuch general who served as governor of the Damascus until he led an army of 30,000 men in a campaign to expand Fatimid control northeast to the city of Aleppo, Syria. He was noted for being able to unite a diverse group of Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, and Turks into one coherent fighting force which was able to successfully combat the [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasids]], [[Bedouin]]s, and Byzantines.

Barjawan was a European eunuch during late Fatimid rule who gained power through his military and political savvy which brought peace between them and the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he squashed revolts in the Libya and the Levant. Given his reputation and power in the court and military he took the reins of the caliphate from his then student [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]]; then ruled as the de facto Regent 997 CE. His usurpation of power from the caliph resulted in his assassination in 1000 CE on the orders of al-Hakim.

Since imams during this period ruled over a majority non-Shi'a population, the court eunuchs served an important informal role as ambassadors of the caliph, promoting loyalty and devotion to the Shi'a sect and the imam-caliph himself. The multicultural, multilingual eunuchs were able to connect to the commoners through shared cultural ground.

====Ottoman Empire====
[[File:Ottoman eunuch, 1912.jpg|thumb|Chief Eunuch of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Sultan]] [[Abdul Hamid II]] at the Imperial Palace, 1912]]
During the period of [[slavery in the Ottoman Empire]], eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html |title=Bernard Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1994 |access-date=April 24, 2021}}</ref>

The [[Imperial Harem|Ottoman court harem]]—within the [[Topkapı Palace]] (1465–1853) and later the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] (1853–1909) in [[Istanbul]]—was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: black eunuchs and white eunuchs. Black eunuchs were slaves from [[sub-Saharan Africa]] via the [[Trans-Saharan slave trade]], the [[Red Sea slave trade]] or the [[Indian Ocean slave trade]], who served [[concubinage in Islam|the concubines]] and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank.

The white eunuchs were slaves from the [[Balkans]] or the [[Caucasus]], either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay the ''[[jizya]]'' tax. They served the recruits at the [[Palace School]] and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the [[Chief Black Eunuch]] (''Kızlar Ağası'' or ''Darüssaade Ağası''). In control of both the harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials.<ref>Lad, Jateen. "Panoptic Bodies. Black Eunuchs in the Topkapi Palace", Scroope: ''Cambridge Architecture Journal'', No.15, 2003, pp.16–20.</ref>

One of the most powerful Chief Eunuchs was [[Beshir Agha]] in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of [[Hanafi]] Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hathaway|first=Jane|title=Beshir Agha : chief eunuch of the Ottoman imperial harem|year=2005|publisher=Oneworld|location=Oxford|isbn=1-85168-390-9|pages=xii, xiv}}</ref>

=====Algiers=====
In the 16th century, an Englishman, [[Samson Rowlie]], was captured and castrated to serve the Ottoman governor in Algiers.

=====Coptic involvement=====
In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his book ''Kitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam'' ({{langx|ar|كتاب معيد النعم ومبيد النقم}}), a title that has been translated as ''Book of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance'' and also as ''Book of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes''. In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for the ''tawashiya'' [eunuchs]: the ''zimam'' watched over women, and the ''muqaddam al-mamalik'' over adolescent boys.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marmon|first=Shaun Elizabeth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHbmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62|title=Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society|date=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507101-6|page=62|language=en}}</ref>

[[Edmund Andrews (surgeon)|Edmund Andrews]] of [[Northwestern University]], in an 1898 article called "Oriental Eunuchs" in ''[[The American Journal of Medicine]]'', refers to Coptic priests in "Abou Gerhè in Upper Egypt" castrating slave boys.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilIKAQAAMAAJ|title=Journal of the American Medical Association|date=1 January 1898|publisher=American Medical Association.|via=Google Books}}</ref>

[[File:Sebah, Pascal – Ottoman Eunuch.JPG|thumb|A black eunuch of the Ottoman Sultan. Photograph by [[Pascal Sebah]], 1870s.]]
Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by [[Peter Charles Remondino]], in his book ''History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present'',<ref name="books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VS-2aLdskbAC&pg=PA99 |title=History of Circumcision|first=P. C.|last=Remondino|date=1 June 2001|publisher=The Minerva Group, Inc.|via=Google Books|isbn=9780898754100}}</ref> published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, ''Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan'',<ref name="books.google.co.uk" /> published by a French explorer, Count [[Raoul du Bisson]], in 1868, though this detail does not appear in Du Bisson's book.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/lesfemmesleseun00bissgoog#page/n141/mode/2up|title=Les femmes, les eunuques et les guerriers du Soudan|year=1868|publisher=E. Dentu}}</ref>

Remondino's claims were repeated in similar form by Henry G. Spooner in 1919, in the ''American Journal of Urology and Sexology''. Spooner, an associate of [[William J. Robinson]], referred to the monastery as "Abou Gerbe in Upper Egypt".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mz1YAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA522 |title=The American Journal of Urology and Sexology, Volume 15|author=Henry G. Spooner|year=1919|publisher=The Grafton Press|page=522|access-date=11 January 2011 |quote=In the Turkish Empire most of the eunuchs are furnished by the monastery Abou-Gerbe in Upper Egypt where the Coptic priests castrate Nubian and Abyssinian boys at about eight years of age and afterward sell them to the Turkish market. The Coptic priests perform the 'complete' operation, that is, they cut away the whole scrotum, testes and penis.}}</ref>

According to Remondino, Spooner, and several later sources, the Coptic priests sliced the penis and testicles off [[Nubian people|Nubian]] or [[Habesha people|Abyssinian]] slave boys around the age of eight. The boys were captured from Abyssinia and other areas in [[Sudan]] like [[Darfur]] and [[Kordofan]], then brought into Sudan and Egypt. During the operation, the Coptic clergyman chained the boys to tables, then, after slicing off their sexual organs, stuck a piece of bamboo into the urethra and submerged them in neck-high sand under the sun. The mortality rate was said to be high. Slave traders made especially large profits off eunuchs from this region.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhcTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA467 |title=Northwestern lancet, Volume 17|year=1897|publisher=s.n.|page=467|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0OdC7GDJ6oC&pg=PA100 |title=The African diaspora in the Mediterranean lands of Islam|author1=John O. Hunwick |author2=Eve Troutt Powell |year=2002|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=1-55876-275-2|page=100|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ilIKAQAAMAAJ|quote=the Coptic priests castrate Nubian and Abyssinian slave boys at about 8 years of age and afterward sell them to the Turkish market. Turks in Asia Minor are also partly supplied by Circassian eunuchs. The Coptic priests before.|title=The Journal of the American Medical Association, Volume 30, Issues 1–13|author=American Medical Association|year=1898|publisher=American Medical Association|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ilIKAQAAMAAJ/page/n181 176]|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref>