Editing Euboea (section)

==History==

===Antiquity===
[[File:Chalkis-Archaelogical-Museum.JPG|thumb|Exhibits in the archaeological museum of Chalcis.]]
[[File:Euboea drachma.jpg|thumb|Silver [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] of the [[Euboean League]]. Obverse: Head of the [[Euboea (mythology)|nymph Euboea]]. Reverse: [[Bull]]'s head, [[kantharos]] to right EY[ΒΟΙΕΩΝ] ''"of the Euboeans"''.]]

The history of the island of Euboea is largely that of its two principal cities, [[Chalcis]] and [[Eretria]], both mentioned in the [[Catalogue of Ships]]. Both cities were settled by [[Ionians|Ionian]] Greeks from [[Attica]], and would eventually settle numerous colonies in [[Magna Graecia]] and [[Sicily]], such as [[Cumae]] and [[Reggio Calabria|Rhegium]], and on the coast of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. This opened new trade routes to the [[Greeks]], and extended the reach of Western Civilization.<ref>Lane Fox, Robin. ''Travelling Heroes'' (London: Penguin, 2008)  ''passim''</ref> The commercial influence of these city-states is evident in the fact that the Euboic scale of weights and measures was used among the Ionic cities generally, and in [[Athens]] until the end of the 7th century BC, during the time of [[Solon]].{{sfn|Tozer|1911|p=866}} The classicist [[Barry B. Powell]] has proposed that Euboea may have been where the [[Greek alphabet]] was first employed, c. 775–750 BC, and that [[Homer]] may have spent part of his life on the island.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V1N2/powell|title=Did Homer Sing at Lefkandi?|first=Barry B.|last=Powell|website=Scholar.lib.vt.edu|access-date=23 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224101338/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V1N2/powell|archive-date=24 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Euboia Histiaia 2 BMC61 1.xcf|alt=Silver tetrobol from Euboia, Histaia|thumb|Silver tetrobol from Euboia, Histaia. Wreathed head of the Nymph Histiaia right; [ΙΣΤΙ] – ΑΕΙΩΝ, Nymph Histiaia seated right on stern of galley, ornamented with wing, holding naval standard; AP monogram and labrys in exergue; BMC 61; BCD 391]]

Chalcis and Eretria were rival cities, and appear to have been equally powerful for a while. One of the earliest major military conflicts in Greek history took place between them, known as the [[Lelantine War]], in which many other Greek city-states also took part.<ref>Thucydides: [[History of the Peloponnesian War]]. I 15.</ref> In 490 BC, Eretria was utterly ruined by the Persian armies. Eretria, Athens, and other Ionian Greek states had previously burned the Persian city of Sardis and participated in the Ionian revolution. After Eretria was destroyed, its  inhabitants were transported as captives to [[Persian Empire|Persia]].{{clarify|date=April 2012}}<!-- How/why did this happen?--> Though it was restored nearby its original site after the [[Battle of Marathon]], the city never regained its former eminence.{{sfn|Tozer|1911|p=867}} Following the battles of [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]] and [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]] in 480 BC, [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] forces occupied Euboea along with Attica and Boeotia.<ref name = L248>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVRwQgAACAAJ&q=Lazenby+writer+greece+history|title=The Defence of Greece, 490-479 B.C.|first=John Francis|last=Lazenby|date=23 December 1993|publisher=Aris & Phillips|isbn=9780856685910|access-date=23 December 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref> Following their decisive defeat at the [[Battle of Plataea]] the following year, the Persians withdrew from all of their European possessions, including Euboea.

Both cities gradually lost influence to Athens, which saw Euboea as a strategic territory. Euboea was an important source of [[grain]] and [[cattle]], and controlling the island meant Athens could prevent invasion and better protect its trade routes from [[Piracy#Ancient origins|piracy]].
Athens invaded Chalcis in 506 BC and settled 4,000 Attic Greeks on their lands.  After this conflict, the whole of the island was gradually reduced to an Athenian dependency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=search&search=Anepigraphic|title=Forum Ancient Coins|website=Forum Ancient Coins|language=en|access-date=2018-01-11}}</ref> Another struggle between Euboea and Athens broke out in 446. Led by [[Pericles]], the Athenians subdued the revolt, and captured [[Istiaia|Histiaea]] in the north of the island for their own settlement.{{sfn|Tozer|1911|p=867}}

By 410 BC, during the [[Peloponnesian War]], the island succeeded in regaining its independence. Euboea participated in Greek affairs until it fell under the control of [[Philip II of Macedon]] after the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338 BC. It was incorporated into the [[Roman Republic]] in the second century BC.{{sfn|Tozer|1911|p=867}} [[Aristotle]] died on the island in 322 BC soon after fleeing Athens for his mother's family estate in Chalcis. From the early [[Hellenistic period]] to well into the [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial period]], the island was organized into the [[Euboean League]].

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Άγιος Δημήτριος Αυλωνάρι 8229.jpg|thumb|left|St Demetrius in [[Avlonari]] (10th)]]
[[File:Greece in 1210.svg|thumb|Negroponte and the other Greek and Latin states of southern Greece, c.&nbsp;1210.]]
[[File:Ναός Αγίας Παρασκευής, Χαλκίδα 1058.jpg|thumb|Medieval church of Agia Paraskevi, [[Chalcis]].]]
[[File:Castel tower Karystos, Euboea, Greece.jpg|thumb|Kokkinokastro (Castelrosso) of [[Karystos]]]]
[[File:Bourtzi castle Karystos Euboea Greece.jpg|thumb|Bourtzi castle, [[Karystos]]]]

Unlike much of [[Byzantine Greece]], Euboea was spared the bulk of the barbarian raids during [[late antiquity]] and the early medieval period, due to its relatively isolated location. The [[Vandals]] raided its shores in 466 and in 475, but the island seems to have been left alone by the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and [[Slavs]], and it was not until a failed Arab attack on Chalcis in the 870s that the island again came under threat.<ref name="ODB"/> As a result, the island preserved a relative prosperity throughout the early medieval period, as attested by finds of mosaics, churches and sculpture throughout the 7th century, "even from remote areas of the island". In the 6th century, the ''[[Synecdemus]]'' listed four cities on the island, [[Aidipsos]], Chalcis, Porthmos (modern [[Aliveri]]) and [[Karystos]], and a number of other sites are known as bishoprics in the subsequent centuries ([[Oreoi]] and [[Avlon, Euboea|Avlon]]), although their urban character is unclear.<ref name="ODB"/> In the 8th century, Euboea formed a distinct fiscal district (''dioikesis''), and then formed part of the [[theme (Byzantine district)|theme]] of [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]].<ref name="ODB"/>

In 1157 all the coastal towns of Euboea were destroyed by a [[Sicily|Sicilian]] force,<ref>Norwich, John Julius. ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996) p. 116</ref> while Chalcis was burned down by the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] in 1171.<ref name="ODB"/> During the 13th century, the Greek element of the island was strengthened by the Byzantine Emperor Michael Palaiologos.<ref name=":1">Γερογιάννη, Ευαγγελία. (2013). ''[https://olympias.lib.uoi.gr/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1171/1/%CE%9C.%20%CE%95.%20%CE%93%CE%95%CE%A1%CE%9F%CE%93%CE%99%CE%91%CE%9D%CE%9D%CE%97%20%CE%95%CE%A5%CE%91%CE%93%CE%93%CE%95%CE%9B%CE%99%CE%91.pdf Οι Τοπικές Ενδυμασίες της Εύβοιας: Παρελθόν – Παρόν]''. University of Ioannina. p. 24.</ref>

Euboea came into prominence following the [[Fourth Crusade]]. In the partition of the Byzantine Empire by the crusaders after 1204, the island was occupied by a number of [[Lombardy|Lombard]] families, who divided it into three baronies, the [[Triarchy of Negroponte]]; each barony was split in 1216, giving six [[sestiere]]. The island's rulers came early on under the influence of the [[Venetian Republic]], which secured control of the island's commerce in the [[War of the Euboeote Succession]] (1256–1258) and gradually expanded its control, until they acquired full sovereignty by 1390.

On 12 July 1470, during the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)|Ottoman–Venetian War of 1463–1479]] and after a [[Siege of Negroponte (1470)|protracted and bloody siege]], the well-fortified city of Negroponte (Chalcis) was wrested from Venice by [[Mehmed II]] and the whole island fell into the hands of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Doge [[Francesco Morosini]] besieged the city in 1688, but was forced to withdraw after three months.{{sfn|Tozer|1911|p=867}}

[[Albanians]] started settling Euboea gradually, since 1402, encouraged by the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]]. In 1425, a total of 10,000 Albanians from various regions were settled in Euboea. A further indeterminate number of Albanians settled in the island in 1435. These Albanians intermingled with the local Greeks of the island.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Φάραντος |first=Χαράλαμπος Δ. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI5NAAAAYAAJ |title=Δύο σταυρεπίστεγοι Ναοί στις περιοχές των χωριών: Μετόχι και Λενωσαίοι της Νότιας Εύβοιας |date=1984 |publisher=Εταιρεία Ευβοϊκών Σπουδών |language=el |quote=Τὸ ὀλιγάνθρωπο τῆς περιοχῆς ἀνάγκασε τοὺς Φράγκους δυνάστες τῆς Εὔβοιας νὰ ἐπιτρέψουν τὴν ἐγκατάσταση ̓Αλβανῶν ( Αρβανιτῶν ) στὴ Νότια Εὔβοια · ἀπὸ τὸ 1402. Αὐτοὶ οἱ νέοι κάτοικοι, οἱ ̓Αρβανίτες, ἀναμείχτηκαν μὲ τὸν ἑλληνικὸ (= ντόπιο) πληθυσμό, ποὺ κατοικοῦσε στὸν ἴδιο χῶρο, καὶ ρίζωσαν στὸν σκληρὸ αὐτὸν τόπο.}}</ref> A contemporary report (1687) notes that in 1471 Greeks had abandoned the island and by 1687 almost all of the island was inhabited by Albanians. This isn't corroborated in other reports so it likely presents a doubtful depiction of the demographic situation in the island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nakratzas |first=Georgios |title=Hē stenē ethnologikē syngeneia tōn sēmerinōn Hellēnōn, Voulgarōn kai Tourkōn: Ēpeiros-Notia Hellada |date=1996 |publisher=Batavia |isbn=9789608580008 |pages=89–90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o1BoAAAAMAAJ |quote=[...] για να ενισχύσει το 1425 με την εγκατάσταση 10.000 Αλβανών. Η εποίκηση αυτή συνεχίστηκε το 1435 με την εγκατάσταση στο νησία ενός άγνωστου αριθμού Αλβανών. Στη βιβλιογραφία αναφέρεται πως το 1471 ο ελληνικός πληθυσμός εγκατέλειψε την Εύβοια, με συνέπεια το 1687 σχεδόν ολόκληρος ο πληθυσμός του νησιού να αποτελείται από Αλβανούς. Η πληροφορία αυτή δε διασταυρώνεται και από άλλες βιβλιογραφικές πηγές, γεγονός που καθιστά την αξιοπιστία της αμφίβολη. Εκείνο που είναι γενικά παραδεκτό είναι η διαπίστωση του Hanh ότι τον 19ον αιώνα ολόκληρος ο πληθυσμός της νότιας Εύβοιας, με μοναδική εξαίρεση την Κάρυστο, αποτελούνταν από 25.000 Αλβανούς, οι οποίοι πέρασαν ολοκληρωτικά στην ελληνική κουλτούρα.}}</ref> According to [[Johann Georg von Hahn|Johann Georg Von Hahn]] (1854), Albanians were present in all of the cities of southern Euboea, excluding the town of [[Karystos]] which was inhabited solely by Greeks.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Hahn |first=Johann Georg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EhA5AQAAMAAJ |title=Albanesische Studien |date=1854 |publisher=Verlag von Friedrich Mauke |pages=32 |language=de}}</ref><ref name="Elsie">{{cite book | last=Elsie | first=Robert | title=Historical Dictionary of Albania | publisher=Scarecrow Press | series=Historical Dictionaries of Europe | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-8108-7380-3 | page=172}}</ref> According to Hahn, the Albanians numbered 25,000 in south Euboea, out of 72,368 total population of the island as a whole.<ref name=":2" />

The Greek inhabitants of south Euboea spoke a certain dialect related to [[Varieties of Modern Greek#Modern varieties|Old Athenian]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thumb |first=Albert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uPfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA119 |title=Αθηνά: Σύγγραμμα Περιοδικόν της εν Αθήναις Επιστημονικής Εταιρείας. |date=1891 |publisher=Εκ του Τυπογραφείου των Αδελφών Περρή |pages=119 |language=el |chapter=Μελέτη Περί της Σημερινής Εν Αιγινή Λαλούμενης Διαλέκτου |chapter-url=https://anemi.lib.uoc.gr/metadata/c/7/9/metadata-181-0000370.tkl}}</ref> This dialect was spoken in Kymi, Avlonari, Konistres, Aliveri, Karystos and other places.<ref>Παντελίδης, Νικόλαος (2016). ''[http://www.phil.uoa.gr/fileadmin/phil.uoa.gr/uploads/linguistics/Pdf/papers/Pantelidis_2016__To_palaioathinaiko_idioma.pdf Tο παλαιοαθηναϊκό ιδίωμα: Πηγές, μαρτυρίες, χαρακτηριστικά]''. ''Glossologia'': University of Athens. p. 24. "Η γλωσσική ποικιλία της Αθήνας (και της Αττικής γενικά) εντάσσεται, όπως
προαναφέρθηκε, σε μια ομάδα μαζί με τα ιδιώματα της Αίγινας, των Μεγάρων και της νοτιότερης Εύβοιας (Κύμη, Αυλωνάρι, Κονίστρες, Αλιβέρι, Κάρυστος κ.λπ.)</ref>

Although the name Negroponte remained current in European languages until the 19th century, the Turks themselves called the city and the island Eğriboz or Ağriboz after the Euripos Strait. Under Ottoman rule, Ağriboz was the seat of a [[Sanjak of Ağriboz|sanjak]] that also encompassed much of [[Central Greece (geographic region)|Continental Greece]].

At the conclusion of the [[Greek War of Independence]] in 1830, the island returned to Greece and constituted a part of the newly established independent [[Kingdom of Greece (Wittelsbach)|Greek kingdom]].{{sfn|Tozer|1911|p=867}}

=== Modern period ===
[[File:Bridge of Chalcis, Euboea (3).JPG|thumb|The Chalcis' Bridge connecting the island with the mainland of [[Greece]].]]

In 1982, in the Greek-speaking village of Antia in southern Euboea, the entire population knew the local [[whistled language]] called ''sfyria'' (from the Greek word ''sfyrizo'' 'whistle'),<ref name="Stein2017">{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20170731-greeces-disappearing-whistled-language |title=Greece's disappearing whistled language |last=Stein |first=Eliot |date=1 August 2017 |work=[[BBC Travel]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801161637/http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20170731-greeces-disappearing-whistled-language |archive-date=1 August 2017}}</ref> but only a few whistlers remain in the 21st century.<ref name=Meyer2005>{{cite thesis |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |title=Description typologique et intelligibilité des langues sifflées, approche linguistique et bioacoustique |trans-title=Typology and intelligibility of whistled languages: approach in linguistics and bioacoustics |language=fr |year=2005 |url=http://www.lemondesiffle.free.fr/projet/science/TheseMeyer.pdf}}</ref> ''Sfyria'' is "a whistled version of spoken Greek, in which letters and syllables correspond to distinct tones and frequencies."<ref name="Stein2017" />

Beginning in late 1943, 1,000 Greek Jews were smuggled from [[Salonika|Thessaloniki]] and Athens via the island by the [[Greek Resistance]] and British [[MI11]] to [[Çeşme]] in neutral [[Turkey]], thereby escaping [[the Holocaust in Greece]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guttstadt |first1=Corry |last2=Mannoni |first2=Olivier |title=La politique de la Turquie pendant la Shoah |journal=Revue d'Histoire de la Shoah |date=2015 |issue=2 |page=195 |doi=10.3917/rhsho.203.0195 |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-revue-d-histoire-de-la-shoah-2015-2-page-195.htm}}</ref>

Euboea is linked to the mainland by two bridges, one that runs through Chalcis and is also accessible from [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and another which bypasses Chalcis and is accessed from Athens. All of Euboea's modern bridges are [[Suspension bridge|suspended]].

In the 1980s, the [[Dystos]] lake was filled with grass which was set on fire by farmers to make more farmland. This act caused devastation of much of the plants and the environment in that area.{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} A part of the lake later regenerated. Also the municipalities of Anthidona and Avlida in the mid to late 20th century, which once were part of [[Boeotia]], reverted to Chalcis.{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} Since then, the postal codes have corresponded with the rest of Euboea, including Skyros. 

A week-long major [[2021 Greece wildfires|forest fire in 2021]] destroyed over 50,000 hectares of forest and agricultural land in the north of the island, one of the largest forest fires in modern Greek history.