Editing Etymologiae (section)

== Contents ==

''The Etymologies'' organizes knowledge, mainly drawn from the classics, into twenty books:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Structure of ''The Etymologies''
! Book !! Topics !! Principal sources
|-
| (Whole work) || (Etymological encyclopedia) || the ''Prata'' of [[Suetonius]], now lost{{sfn|Lindsay|1911b}}
|-
| Book I: {{Lang|la|de grammatica}}|| [[trivium (education)|Trivium]]: grammar || ''Institutes'' of [[Cassiodorus]]{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book II: {{lang|la|de rhetorica et dialectica}} || Trivium: [[rhetoric]] and [[dialectic]] || Cassiodorus{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book III: {{lang|la|de quatuor disciplinis mathematicis}} || [[Quadrivium]]: arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy || [[Boethius]] on mathematics; Cassiodorus{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book IV: {{lang|la|de medicina}} || medicine || [[Caelius Aurelianus]], [[Soranus of Ephesus]], Pliny{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book V: {{lang|la|de legibus et temporibus}} || law and [[chronology]] || [[Institutes of Gaius|''Institutes'' of Gaius]], ''[[Breviary of Alaric]]''{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book VI: {{lang|la|de libris et officiis ecclesiasticis}} || Ecclesiastical books and offices || Augustine, [[Saint Jerome|Jerome]], [[Gregory the Great]], ''Divine Institutes'' of [[Lactantius]], [[Tertullian]]{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book VII: {{lang|la|de deo, angelis, sanctis et fidelium ordinibus}} || God, angels and saints hierarchies of heaven and earth || Augustine, Jerome, Gregory the Great, Lactantius, Tertullian{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book VIII: {{lang|la|de ecclesia et sectis diversis}} || The church, Jews, and heretical [[sects]]; pagan philosophers, prophets and [[sibyls]] || Augustine, Jerome, Gregory the Great, Lactantius, Tertullian (Christian); [[Varro]], [[Cicero]], [[Pliny the Elder]] (pagan){{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book IX: {{lang|la|de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus, affinitatibus}} || Languages, peoples, kingdoms, armies, [[city|cities]] and titles || Augustine, Ambrose, Jerome, Servius, Pliny, [[Gaius Julius Solinus|Solinus]] (who borrowed from Pliny){{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book X: {{lang|la|de vocabulis}} || Etymologies || [[Verrius Flaccus]] via Festus; [[Maurus Servius Honoratus|Servius]]; the [[Church Fathers]].{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XI: {{lang|la|de homine et portentis}} || Mankind, [[Portent (divination)|portents]], and transformations || Books XI – XX all include material from Pliny's ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', Servius, Solinus
|-
| Book XII: {{lang|la|de animalibus}} || Beasts and birds || Pliny, Servius, Solinus, ''[[Hexameron]]'' of [[Ambrose]]{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XIII: {{lang|la|de mundo et partibus}} || The physical world, [[atoms]], [[classical element|elements]], natural phenomena || as Book XI{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XIV: {{lang|la|de terra et partibus}} || Geography: Earth, Asia, Europe, Libya, islands, promontories, mountains, caves || as Book XI; ''Histories Against the Pagans'' of [[Paulus Orosius]]{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XV: {{lang|la|de aedificiis et agris}} || Public buildings, [[civil engineering|public works]], roads || [[Columella]], Servius{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XVI: {{lang|la|de lapidibus et metallis}} || Metals and stones || Pliny, Servius, Solinus{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XVII: {{lang|la|de rebus rusticis}} || Agriculture || [[Cato the Younger|Cato]] via Columella, Pliny, Servius, Solinus, Rutilius Palladius, Varro{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XVIII: {{lang|la|de bello et ludis}} || Terms of war, games, [[jurisprudence]] || Servius; [[Tertullian]] on circus games{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XIX: {{lang|la|de navibus, aedificiis et vestibus}} || Ships, houses, and clothes || Servius; also Jerome, Festus, Pliny, [[Marcus Cetius Faventinus]], Palladius, Nonus Marcellus{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|-
| Book XX: {{lang|la|de penu et instrumentis domesticis et rusticis}} || Food, tools, and furnishings || as Book XIX{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=14–15}}
|}

In '''Book I''', Isidore begins with a lengthy section on grammar, the first of three subjects in the mediaeval [[trivium (education)|Trivium]] considered at the time the core of essential knowledge. He covers the letters of the alphabet, parts of speech, accents, punctuation and other marks, shorthand and abbreviations, writing in cipher and sign language, types of mistake and histories.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=39–68}} He derives the word for letters ({{lang|la|littera}}) from the Latin words for "to read" ({{lang|la|legere}}) and 'road' ({{lang|la|iter}}), "as if the term were {{lang|la|legitera}}",{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|p=39}} arguing that letters offer a road for people who read.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=39–68}}

'''Book II''' completes the medieval Trivium with coverage of [[rhetoric]] and [[dialectic]]. Isidore describes what rhetoric is, kinds of argument, maxims, elocution, ways of speaking, and figures of speech. On dialectic, he discusses philosophy, syllogisms, and definitions. He equates the Greek term syllogism with the Latin term argumentation ({{lang|la|argumentatio}}), which he derives from the Latin for "clear mind" ({{lang|la|arguta mens}}).{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=69–88}}

'''Book III''' covers the medieval [[Quadrivium]], the four subjects that supplemented the Trivium being arithmetic, [[geometry]], music, and astronomy.{{efn|The accounts of logic in Book II and of arithmetic in Book III are transferred almost word for word from [[Cassiodorus]], Isidore's editor, W. M. Lindsay observed.{{sfn|Lindsay|1911a|p=42}}}} He argues that there are infinitely many numbers, as you can always add one (or any other number) to whatever number you think is the limit.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=89–108}} He attributes geometry to [[Ancient Egypt]], arguing that because the [[River Nile]] flooded and covered the land with mud, geometry was needed to mark out people's land "with lines and measures".{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|p=93}} Isidore distinguishes astronomy from [[astrology]] and covers the world, the sky and the celestial sphere, the [[zodiac]], the Sun, Moon, stars, [[Milky Way]], and planets, and the names of the stars. He derives the curved ({{lang|la|curvus}}) vault of the heavens from the Latin word for "upside-down" ({{lang|la|conversus}}). He explains eclipses of the Sun as the Moon coming between the Earth and the Sun and eclipses of the Moon as happening when it runs into the shadow of the Earth. He condemns the Roman naming of the planets after their gods: Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and Mercury.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=89–108}} Isidore of Seiville distinguished between a 'Superstitious' astrology ({{lang|la|astrologia superstitiosa}}) from a 'natural' astrology. The first deals with the [[horoscope]] and the attempt of foreseeing the future of one or more persons; the latter was a legitimate activity which had concerns with meteorological predictions, including [[Iatromathematicians|iatromathematics]] and [[Medical astrology|astrological medicine]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter J. Forshaw|editor1-first=Christopher|editor1-last=Partridge|url=https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315745916.ch2|page=35|chapter=2 - Astrology in the Middle Ages|title=The Occult Middle Ages|date=December 18, 2014|series=The Occult World|doi=10.4324/9781315745916|isbn=9781315745916|s2cid=80814800 |format=pdf|oclc=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515192842/https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/pdf/doi/10.4324/9781315745916.ch2|archive-date=May 15, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Book IV''' covers medicine, including the four humours, diseases, remedies and medical instruments. He derives the word medicine from the Latin for "moderation" ({{lang|la|modus}}), and "[[sciatica]]" ({{lang|la|sciasis}}) from the affected part of the body, the hip (Greek {{lang|grc|ἰσχία}} {{transliteration|grc|ischia}}).{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=109–116}}

'''Book V''' covers law and [[chronology]]. Isidore distinguishes natural, civil, international, military and public law among others. He discusses the purpose of law, legal cases, witnesses, offences and penalties. On chronology, Isidore covers periods of time such as days, weeks, and months, solstices and equinoxes, seasons, special years such as Olympiads and Jubilees, generations and ages.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=117–134}}

In '''Book VI''', Isidore describes ecclesiastical books and offices starting with the Old and New Testaments, the authors and names of the holy books, libraries and translators, authors, writing materials including tablets, papyrus and parchment, books, scribes, and Christian festivals.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=135–152}}

'''Book VII''' describes the basic scheme concerning God, angels, and saints: in other words, the hierarchies of heaven and earth from patriarchs, prophets and apostles down the scale through people named in the gospels to martyrs, clergymen, monks and ordinary Christians.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=153–172}}

'''Book VIII''' covers religion in the shape of the Christian church, the Jews and heretical sects, pagan philosophers including poets, [[sibyls]] and [[magi]], and the pagan gods.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=173–190}}

'''Book IX''' covers languages, peoples, kingdoms, cities and titles.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=191–212}}

'''Book X''' is a word-list of nouns and adjectives, together with supposed etymologies for them. For example, the letter 'D' begins with the word for master ({{lang|la|Dominus}}), as he is the head of a household ({{lang|la|Domus}}); the adjective docile ({{lang|la|docilis}}) is derived by Isidore from the verb for "to teach" ({{lang|la|docere}}), because docile people are able to learn; and the word for abominable ({{lang|la|Nefarius}}) is explained as being not worth the grain called [[spelt]] ({{lang|la|far}}).{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=213–230}}

'''Book XI''' covers human beings, [[Portent (divination)|portents]] and transformations. Isidore derives human beings (''homo'') from the Latin for soil (''humus''), as in Genesis 2:7 it says that man is made from the soil. Urine (''urina'') gets its name either from the fact that it can burn (''urere'') the skin or, Isidore hedges, that it is from the kidneys (''renes''). ''Femina'', meaning woman, comes from ''femora/femina'' meaning thighs, as this part of the body shows she is not a man. The Latin for buttocks is ''clunis'' as they are near the large intestine or colon (''colum'').{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=231–246}}

'''Book XII''' covers [[animals]], including small animals, [[snakes]], [[Worm|worms]], [[fish]], [[birds]] and other beasts that fly. Isidore's treatment is as usual full of conjectural etymology, so a horse is called {{lang|la|equus}} because when in a team of four horses they are balanced (''aequare''). The spider (''aranea'') is so called from the air (''aer'') that feeds it. The [[electric ray]] (''torpedo'') is called that because it numbs ({{lang|la|torpescere}}, compare English "torpid") anyone who touches it.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=247–270}}

'''Book XIII''' describes the [[physics|physical world]], [[atoms]], [[classical elements]], the sky, clouds, thunder and lightning, rainbows, winds, and waters including the sea, the Mediterranean, bays, tides, lakes, rivers and floods. The sky is called {{lang|la|caelum}}, as it has stars stamped on to it, like a decorated pot ({{lang|la|caelatus}}). Clouds are called {{lang|la|nubes}} as they veil ({{lang|la|obnubere}}) the sky, just as brides ({{lang|la|nupta}}) wear veils for their weddings. The wind is called {{lang|la|ventus}}, as it is angry and violent ({{lang|la|vehemens}}, {{lang|la|violentus}}).{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=271–284}} There are many kinds of water: some water "is salty, some alkaline, some with alum, some sulfuric, some tarry, and some containing a cure for illnesses."{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|p=276}} There are waters that cure eye injuries, or make voices melodious, or cause madness, or cure infertility. The water of the Styx causes immediate death.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=271–284}}

[[File:Diagrammatic T-O world map - 12th century.jpg|thumb|[[T and O map]] from the first printed edition of {{lang|la|Etymologiae}}, XIV: ''de terra et partibus'', representing the inhabited world. Augsburg, 1472. The East is at the top, with Asia occupying the top half of the "globe" (''orbis'').]]

'''Book XIV''' covers [[geography]], describing the Earth, islands, promontories, mountains and caves. The Earth is divided into three parts, Asia occupying half the globe, and Europe and Africa each occupying a quarter. Europe is separated from Africa by the Mediterranean, reaching in from the Ocean that flows all around the land.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=285–300}} Isidore writes that the {{lang|la|orbis}} of the Earth, translated by Barney as "globe", "derives its name from the roundness of the circle, because it resembles a wheel; hence a small wheel is called a 'small disk' ({{lang|la|orbiculus}})".{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|p=285}} Barney notes that ''orbis'' "refers to the 'circle' of lands around the Mediterranean, and hence to the total known extent of land."{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|p=285}} The fourteenth book of the ''Etymologies'' is also often illustrated with a circular [[T-O map]], which gaves a vague impression of a [[flat earth|flat disc-shaped Earth]], though authors disagree about Isidore's beliefs on the matter.{{sfn|Brehaut|2003 [1912]|p=174}}{{sfn|Garwood|2007|p=25}}{{efn|Garwood notes, "St Augustine's stance on the shape of the earth [spherical] was supported, albeit vaguely, by the most popular encyclopedist of the era, St Isidore of Seville".{{sfn|Garwood|2007|p=25}}}}{{sfn|Russell|1991|pp=86–87}}{{sfn|Stevens|1980|pp=268–77}}{{sfn|Grant|1974|pp=268–77}}<ref name="Woodward">Woodward, David. "Reality, Symbolism, Time, and Space in Medieval World Maps", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1985, p. 517-519.</ref>

'''Book XV''' covers cities and buildings including public buildings, houses, storehouses and workshops, parts of buildings, tents, fields and roads.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=301–316}}

'''Book XVI''' covers metals and rocks, starting with dust and earth, and moving on to gemstones of different colours, glass and mines. Metals include gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and [[electrum]]. Weights and measures end the book. Games with boards and dice are described.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=317–336}}

'''Book XVII''' describes agriculture, including grains, legumes, vines, trees, aromatic herbs and vegetables.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=337–358}}

'''Book XVIII''' covers the terms of war, games, and [[jurisprudence]]. Isidore describes standards, trumpets, weapons including swords, spears, arrows, slings, battering rams, and armour including shields, breastplates and helmets. Athletic games include running and jumping, throwing and wrestling. Circus games are described, with chariot racing, horse racing and vaulting. In the theatre, comedy, tragedy, mime and dance are covered. In the amphitheatre, Isidore covers those who fight with nets, nooses and other weapons.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=359–372}}

'''Book XIX''' covers ships including boats, sails, ropes and nets; forges and tools; building, including walls, decorations, ceilings, mosaics, statues, and building tools; and clothes, including types of dress, cloaks, bedding, tools, rings, belts and shoes. The word "net" ({{lang|la|rete}}), is derived from retaining ({{lang|la|retinere}}) fish, or perhaps, writes Isidore, from the ropes ({{lang|la|restis}}) they are attached to.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=373–394}}

'''Book XX''' completes Isidore's encyclopaedia, describing food and drink and vessels for these, storage and cooking vessels; furnishings including beds and chairs; vehicles, farm and garden tools and equipment for horses.{{sfn|Barney et al.|2006|pp=395–408}}