Editing Estrogen (section)

===Overview of actions===
{{Prose|section|date=October 2019}}
* Musculoskeletal
** [[Anabolic]]: Increases [[muscle mass]] and strength, speed of muscle regeneration, and [[bone density]], increased sensitivity to exercise, protection against muscle damage, stronger [[collagen]] synthesis, increases the collagen content of [[connective tissues]], [[tendon]]s, and [[ligament]]s, but also decreases stiffness of [[tendon]]s and [[ligament]]s (especially during [[menstruation]]). Decreased stiffness of tendons gives women much lower predisposition to muscle strains but soft ligaments are much more prone to injuries ([[Anterior cruciate ligament injury|ACL]] tears are 2-8x more common among women than men).<ref name="urlFrontiers | Effect of Estrogen on Musculoskeletal Performance and Injury Risk | Physiology">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chidi-Ogbolu N, Baar K | title = Effect of Estrogen on Musculoskeletal Performance and Injury Risk | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 9 | pages = 1834 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30697162 | pmc = 6341375 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2018.01834 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="urlMechanisms behind Estrogens' Beneficial Effect on Muscle Strength in Females">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lowe DA, Baltgalvis KA, Greising SM | title = Mechanisms behind estrogen's beneficial effect on muscle strength in females | journal = Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 61–67 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20335737 | pmc = 2873087 | doi = 10.1097/JES.0b013e3181d496bc }}</ref><ref name="Max_1984">{{cite journal | vauthors = Max SR | title = Androgen-estrogen synergy in rat levator ani muscle: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase | journal = Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology | volume = 38 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 103–107 | date = December 1984 | pmid = 6510548 | doi = 10.1016/0303-7207(84)90108-4 | s2cid = 24198956 }}</ref><ref name="pmid1958566">{{cite journal | vauthors = Koot RW, Amelink GJ, Blankenstein MA, Bär PR | title = Tamoxifen and oestrogen both protect the rat muscle against physiological damage | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 40 | issue = 4–6 | pages = 689–695 | date = 1991 | pmid = 1958566 | doi = 10.1016/0960-0760(91)90292-d | s2cid = 44446541 }}</ref>
** Reduce [[bone resorption]], increase bone formation
** In mice, estrogen has been shown to increase the proportion of the fastest-twitch (type IIX) muscle fibers by over 40%.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haizlip KM, Harrison BC, Leinwand LA | title = Sex-based differences in skeletal muscle kinetics and fiber-type composition | journal = Physiology | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 30–39 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25559153 | pmc = 4285578 | doi = 10.1152/physiol.00024.2014 }} "Supplementation with estrogen increases the type-IIX percentage composition in the plantaris back to 42%. (70)"</ref>
* Metabolic
** Anti-inflammatory properties
** Accelerate [[metabolism]]
** [[Gynoid fat distribution]]: increased [[fat distribution|fat storage]] or [[estrogenic fat]] in some body parts such as breasts, buttocks, and legs but decreased abdominal and [[visceral fat]] (androgenic obesity).<ref name="pmid30097511">{{cite journal | vauthors = Frank AP, de Souza Santos R, Palmer BF, Clegg DJ | title = Determinants of body fat distribution in humans may provide insight about obesity-related health risks | journal = Journal of Lipid Research | volume = 60 | issue = 10 | pages = 1710–1719 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 30097511 | pmc = 6795075 | doi = 10.1194/jlr.R086975  |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="urlMetabolic impact of sex hormones on obesity - PubMed">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown LM, Gent L, Davis K, Clegg DJ | title = Metabolic impact of sex hormones on obesity | journal = Brain Research | volume = 1350 | pages = 77–85 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20441773 | pmc = 2924463 | doi = 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.04.056 }}</ref><ref name="urlTestosterone and Visceral Fat in Midlife Women: The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) Fat Patterning Study">{{cite journal | vauthors = Janssen I, Powell LH, Kazlauskaite R, Dugan SA | title = Testosterone and visceral fat in midlife women: the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) fat patterning study | journal = Obesity | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 604–610 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 19696765 | pmc = 2866448 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2009.251 }}</ref>
** [[Estradiol]] also regulates energy expenditure, body weight [[homeostasis]], and seems to have much stronger anti-obesity effects than testosterone in general.<ref name="urlChapter 24: Estrogens and Body Weight Regulation in Men">{{cite book | vauthors = Rubinow KB | title = Sex and Gender Factors Affecting Metabolic Homeostasis, Diabetes and Obesity | chapter = Estrogens and Body Weight Regulation in Men | series = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1043 | pages = 285–313 | year = 2017 | publisher = Springer | pmid = 29224100 | pmc = 5835337 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-70178-3_14 | isbn = 978-3-319-70177-6 }}</ref>
* Other structural
** Maintenance of vessels and skin
* [[Protein]] synthesis
** Increase [[hepatic production]] of [[binding protein]]s
** Increase production of the hepatokine [[adropin]].<ref name="Hepatic adropin is regulated by est">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stokar J, Gurt I, Cohen-Kfir E, Yakubovsky O, Hallak N, Benyamini H, Lishinsky N, Offir N, Tam J, Dresner-Pollak R | title = Hepatic adropin is regulated by estrogen and contributes to adverse metabolic phenotypes in ovariectomized mice | journal = Molecular Metabolism | volume = 60 | pages = 101482 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 35364299 | pmc = 9044006 | doi = 10.1016/j.molmet.2022.101482 }}</ref>
* [[Coagulation]]
** Increase circulating level of [[coagulation factor|factors]] [[factor II|2]], [[factor VII|7]], [[factor IX|9]], [[factor X|10]], [[plasminogen]]
** Decrease [[antithrombin]] III
** Increase [[platelet]] adhesiveness
** Increase [[Von Willebrand factor|vWF]] (estrogen -> [[Angiotensin|Angiotensin II]] -> [[Vasopressin]])
** Increase [[PAI-1]] and [[Plasminogen activator inhibitor-2|PAI-2]] also through Angiotensin II
* [[Lipid]]
** Increase [[high density lipoprotein|HDL]], [[triglyceride]]
** Decrease [[low density lipoprotein|LDL]], fat deposition
* Fluid balance
** Salt ([[Sodium in biology|sodium]]) and water retention, including facial swelling and [[edema]]<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Frysh P |title=Reasons Why Your Face Looks Swollen |url=https://www.webmd.com/allergies/ss/slideshow-swollen-face |website=WebMD |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stachenfeld NS | title = Sex hormone effects on body fluid regulation | journal = Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 152–159 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18580296 | pmc = 2849969 | doi = 10.1097/JES.0b013e31817be928 }}</ref>
** Estrogen is associated with [[edema]], including facial and abdominal swelling.
* [[Melanin]]
** Estrogen is known to cause darkening of skin, especially in the face and [[areolae]].<ref name="Pawlina 2023 p. 1481">{{cite book | vauthors = Pawlina W | title=Histology: A Text and Atlas: With Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health | year=2023 | isbn=978-1-9751-8152-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCrKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1481 | access-date=12 October 2023 | page=1481}}</ref> Pale skinned women will develop browner and yellower skin during pregnancy, as a result of the increase of estrogen, known as the [[Melasma|"mask of pregnancy"]].<ref name="Greenberg Bruess Oswalt 2014 p. 248">{{cite book | vauthors = Greenberg J, Bruess C, Oswalt S | chapter = Conception, Pregnancy, and Birth | title=Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality | publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-4496-4851-0 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hm3aTuANFroC&pg=PA248 | access-date=12 October 2023 | page=248}}</ref> Estrogen may explain why women have darker eyes than men, and also a lower risk of skin cancer than men; a European study found that women generally have darker skin than men.<ref>{{cite news |title=Researchers discover genetic causes of higher melanoma risk in men |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/07/160721072753.htm |work=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hernando B, Ibarrola-Villava M, Fernandez LP, Peña-Chilet M, Llorca-Cardeñosa M, Oltra SS, Alonso S, Boyano MD, Martinez-Cadenas C, Ribas G | title = Sex-specific genetic effects associated with pigmentation, sensitivity to sunlight, and melanoma in a population of Spanish origin | journal = Biology of Sex Differences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 17 | date = 18 March 2016 | pmid = 26998216 | doi = 10.1186/s13293-016-0070-1 | doi-access = free | pmc = 4797181 }} "The results of this study suggest that there are indeed sex-specific genetic effects in human pigmentation, with larger effects for darker pigmentation in females compared to males. A plausible cause might be the differentially expressed melanogenic genes in females due to higher oestrogen levels. These sex-specific genetic effects would help explain the presence of darker eye and skin pigmentation in females, as well as the well-known higher melanoma risk displayed by males."</ref>
* [[Lung function]]
** Promotes lung function by supporting [[Pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]] (in rodents but probably in humans).<ref name="pmid15298854">{{cite journal | vauthors = Massaro D, Massaro GD | title = Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice | journal = American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology | volume = 287 | issue = 6 | pages = L1154–L1159 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15298854 | doi = 10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/65aa/5f698c0b57e4d3746dace1af255260ebeae5.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 24642944 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190225225427/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/65aa/5f698c0b57e4d3746dace1af255260ebeae5.pdf | archive-date = 25 February 2019 }}</ref>
* Sexual
** Mediate formation of female [[secondary sex characteristics]]
** Stimulate [[endometrium|endometrial]] growth
** Increase [[uterus|uterine]] growth
** Increase [[vaginal lubrication]]
** Thicken the [[vagina]]l wall
* [[Uterus]] lining
** Estrogen together with [[progesterone]] promotes and maintains the uterus lining in preparation for implantation of fertilized egg and maintenance of uterus function during gestation period, also upregulates [[oxytocin]] receptor in myometrium
* [[Ovulation]]
** Surge in estrogen level induces the release of [[luteinizing hormone]], which then triggers ovulation by releasing the egg from the [[Graafian follicle]] in the [[ovary]].
* [[Sexual behavior]]
** Estrogen is required for female mammals to engage in [[lordosis behavior]] during [[estrus]] (when animals are "in heat").<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Christensen A, Bentley GE, Cabrera R, Ortega HH, Perfito N, Wu TJ, Micevych P | title = Hormonal regulation of female reproduction | journal = Hormone and Metabolic Research | volume = 44 | issue = 8 | pages = 587–591 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22438212 | pmc = 3647363 | doi = 10.1055/s-0032-1306301 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21851428">{{cite journal | vauthors = Handa RJ, Ogawa S, Wang JM, Herbison AE | title = Roles for oestrogen receptor β in adult brain function | journal = Journal of Neuroendocrinology | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 160–173 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 21851428 | pmc = 3348521 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2011.02206.x }}</ref> This behavior is required for sexual receptivity in these mammals and is regulated by the [[ventromedial nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]].<ref name="pmid9638959">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kow LM, Pfaff DW | title = Mapping of neural and signal transduction pathways for lordosis in the search for estrogen actions on the central nervous system | journal = Behavioural Brain Research | volume = 92 | issue = 2 | pages = 169–180 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9638959 | doi = 10.1016/S0166-4328(97)00189-7 | s2cid = 28276218 }}</ref>
** [[Sex drive]] is dependent on [[androgen]] levels<ref name="pmid16037752">{{cite journal | vauthors = Warnock JK, Swanson SG, Borel RW, Zipfel LM, Brennan JJ | title = Combined esterified estrogens and methyltestosterone versus esterified estrogens alone in the treatment of loss of sexual interest in surgically menopausal women | journal = Menopause | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 374–384 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16037752 | doi = 10.1097/01.GME.0000153933.50860.FD | s2cid = 24557071 }}</ref> only in the presence of estrogen, but without estrogen, free testosterone level actually decreases sexual desire (instead of increasing sex drive), as demonstrated for those women who have [[hypoactive sexual desire disorder]], and the sexual desire in these women can be restored by administration of estrogen (using oral contraceptive).<ref name="pmid21514299">{{cite journal | vauthors = Heiman JR, Rupp H, Janssen E, Newhouse SK, Brauer M, Laan E | title = Sexual desire, sexual arousal and hormonal differences in premenopausal US and Dutch women with and without low sexual desire | journal = Hormones and Behavior | volume = 59 | issue = 5 | pages = 772–779 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21514299 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.03.013 | s2cid = 20807391 }}</ref>