Editing Empire (section)

==History of imperialism==

===Early empires===
{{Multiple image
| header            = Early empires
| header_background = #f8eaba
| image1            = Achaemenid Empire 500 BCE.jpg
| caption1          = [[Achaemenid Empire]] of [[Ancient Persia|Persia]] at its zenith
| image2            = Seleucid-Empire 200bc.jpg
| caption2          = Seleucid Empire and Mauryan Empire in 200 BCE. The Seleucid Empire reached its peaked under Antiochus III.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://usuarios.lycos.es/superjulio/IMPERIOS%20DE%20ORIENTE%20MEDIO%201%20(IRAK,%20SIRIA,%20ISRAEL,%20LIBANO,%20YEMEN,%20ARABIA,%20OMAN)/Mapas%20Imperiales%20Imperio%20Seleucida3.jpg |title=Mapas Imperiales - Imperio Seleucida |website=usuarios.lycos.es |access-date= }}{{Dead link|date=February 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Haywood |first=John |author-link= |title=The Cassell Atlas of World History |publisher=Andromeda Oxford Ltd. | year=1997 |page=2.02 |others=et al. }}</ref>
}}
Stephen Howe writes that with the exception of the Roman, Chinese and "perhaps ancient Egyptian states", early empires seldom survived the death of their founder and were usually limited in scope to conquest and collection of tribute, having little impact on the everyday lives of their subjects.{{sfn|Howe|2002|pp=37, 39}}

With the exception of Rome, the periods of dissolution following imperial falls were equally short. Successor states seldom outlived their founders and disappeared in the next and often larger empire. Some empires, like the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]], [[Median kingdom|Median]] and [[Lydia]]n were outright conquered by a larger empire. The historical pattern was not a simple rise-and-fall cycle; rather it was rise, fall, and greater rise. [[Raoul Naroll]] called it "expanding pulsation"<ref>Naroll, Raoul, (1967). "Imperial Cycles and World Order," ''Peace Research Society'', 7: pp 83-101.</ref> and [[Ian Morris (historian)|Ian Morris]] "exponential growth"<ref>Morris, Ian (2012). "The evolution of war," ''Cliodynamics'', vol 3 (1): p 23-24.</ref>

Empires were limited in scope to conquest, as Howe observed, but conquest is a considerable scope. Many fought to the death to avoid it or to be liberated from it. Imperial conquests and attempts of conquest significantly contributed to the [[list of wars by death toll]]. The imperial impact on subjects can be regarded as "little," but only on those subjects who survived the imperial conquest and rule. We cannot ask the inhabitants of [[Carthage]] and [[Masada]], for example, whether empire had little impact on their lives. We seldom hear the voices of subject peoples because history is mostly written by winners. The imperial sources tend to ignore or reduce the resistance by subdued states.<ref>Brien, Pierre (2002). ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire''. (tr. Daniels, Peter T. Indiana: Eisenbrauns)  p 79.</ref> But two rich primary sources of the subject population are the Hebrew [[Prophetic books]] and the ''[[Sibylline Oracles]]''.<ref>[[Erich S. Gruen|Gruen, Erich S]]. (2020). “The Sibylline Oracles and resistance to Rome.” ''The Future of Rome: Roman, Greek, Jewish and Christian Visions''. (Eds. Price, Jonathan J. & Berthelot, Katell, Cambridge University Press), p 195.</ref> The hatred towards the ruling empires expressed in these sources makes impression of an impact more serious than estimated by Howe. A classical writer and adherent of empire, [[Orosius]] explicitly preferred to avoid the views of subject populations.<ref>Orosius. ''History against the Pagans'', IV:23. (tr. Fear, A. T., Liverpool University Press, 2010).</ref> And another classical Roman patriot, [[Lucan]] confessed that "words cannot express how bitterly we are hated" by subject peoples.<ref>Lucan. ''Civil War'', 7:482. (tr. Braund, S. H., Oxford University Press, 1992).</ref>

The earliest known empire appeared in southern Egypt sometime around 3200 BC. Southern Egypt was divided by three kingdoms each centered on a powerful city. Hierapolis conquered the other two cities over two centuries, and later grew into the country of Egypt.{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}} The [[Akkadian Empire]], established by [[Sargon of Akkad]] (24th century BC), was an early all-Mesopotamian empire which spread into Anatolia, the Levant and Ancient Iran. This imperial achievement was repeated by [[Shamshi-Adad I]] of [[Assyria]] and [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]] in the 19th and 18th centuries BC. In the 15th century BC, the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] of [[Ancient Egypt]], ruled by [[Thutmose III]], was [[North Africa during Antiquity|ancient Africa]]'s major force upon incorporating [[Nubia]] and the [[City-state#Ancient city-states|ancient city-states]] of the [[Levant]]. 

In the [[Amarna Period]] (15th-13th centuries BC), Egypt, the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]], [[Hittite Empire]], and those of the [[Mitanni]] and [[Elamites]] formed [[club of great powers]]. Egypt and the Hittites emerged as two dominant Empires of the club and in 1274 BC clashed in the [[Battle of Kadesh]]. The confrontation was not decisive and soon the Amarna international system was dissolved during the [[late Bronze Age collapse]]. All its empires declined. The first empire to recover from the collapse was the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (916–612 BC). By 673 BC, Assyria conquered the entire [[Fertile Crescent]] including Cyprus and [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt|Egypt]]. 

The Assyrian achievement, however, was short lived. In the 6th century BC, the [[Median Empire]], [[Neo-Babylonian empire|Babylonians]], Scythians and Cimmerians allied and [[Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire|defeated the Assyrian Empire]]. The Assyrian capital, [[Nineveh]], was razed by their combined armies in 612 BC. Never again a world leading empire would be centered in a great River Valley. The fall of Nineveh marks the end of the [[Bronze Age|River Valleys age]] and the beginning of the [[Axial Age]].<ref>[[Karl Jaspers|Jaspers, Karl]] (1953). ''The Origin and Goal of History''. (New Haven: Yale University Press), p 6-7.</ref> The Median Empire became the first leading empire, the largest of its day, centered beyond the [[River valley civilization|great River Valleys]]. This Empire lasted for about sixty years.{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}}

C.1500 BC, in China rose the [[Shang Empire]] which was succeeded by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] Empire c.1100 BC. Chronologically, the collapse of Shang also coincides with the late Bronze Age collapse. Both Shang and Zhou equalled or surpassed in territory their contemporary Near Eastern empires. The Zhou Empire dissolved in 770 BC into feudal multi-state system which lasted for five and a half centuries until the [[Qin's wars of unification|universal conquest of Qin]] in 221 BC.
{{Clear}}

===Classical period===
{{See also|Sino-Roman relations}}{{Multiple image
| header            = Empires of the Classical period
| header_background = #f8eaba
| image1            = Roman Empire-117AD.png
| caption1          = [[Roman Empire]] under [[Trajan]] (98–117). This would be the peak of the empire's territorial extent.
| image2            = Map of the Han dynasty.svg
| caption2          = [[Han Empire]] of [[Imperial China|China]] in 2 AD
}}

The [[Axial Age]] (mid-First Millennium BC) witnessed unprecedented imperial expansion in the [[Indo-Mediterranean|Indo-Mediterranean region]] and China,<ref>Samuel N. Eisenstadt, ''Axial Age Civilizations'', (New York: New York State University Press, 1986)</ref> distinguished as the most "dramatic" surge in premodern history.<ref>[[Peter Turchin|Turchin, Peter]] (2009), "A theory for formation of large empires," ''Journal of Global History'', vol 4: p 201, fig 2 on p 205, https://peterturchin.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Turchin_JGH_2009.pdf</ref> The successful and extensive [[Achaemenid Empire]] (550–330 BC), also known as the first Persian Empire, covered [[Mesopotamia]], [[Egypt]], parts of [[Greece]], [[Thrace]], the [[Middle East]], much of [[Central Asia]], and North-Western [[India]]. It is considered the first great empire in history or the first "world empire".<ref>[[Friedrich Ratzel]], "Territorial Growth of States", ''Human Geography: An Essential Anthology'', (eds. Agnew, John, & Livingstone, David & Rogers, Alisdair, Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), p 527; and "The Laws of the Spatial Growth of States", The ''Structure of Political Geography'', (eds. Kasperson, Roger E., & Minghi, Julian V., Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1969), p 18.</ref> It was overthrown and replaced by the short-lived empire of [[Alexander the Great]]. His Empire was succeeded by three Empires ruled by the [[Diadochi]]—the [[Seleucid]], [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]], and [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]], which, despite being independent, are called the "[[Hellenistic]] Empire" by virtue of their similarities in culture and administration.

Meanwhile, in the western Mediterranean the Empires of [[Carthage]] and [[Rome]] began their rise. Having decisively defeated Carthage in 202 BC, Rome defeated Macedonia in 200 BC and the Seleucids in 190–189 BC to establish an all-Mediterranean Empire. The Seleucid Empire broke apart and its former eastern part was absorbed by the [[Parthian Empire]]. In 30 BC Rome annexed Ptolemaic Egypt.

In India during the [[Axial Age]] appeared the [[Maurya Empire]]—a geographically extensive and powerful empire, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. The empire was founded in 322 BC by [[Chandragupta Maurya]] through the help of [[Chanakya]],<ref name="Namita2008">{{Cite book |last=Namita Sanjay Sugandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8bdULPF4gNYC&pg=PA88 |title=Between the Patterns of History: Rethinking Mauryan Imperial Interaction in the Southern Deccan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-549-74441-2 |pages=88–89 |access-date=2012-06-06 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> who rapidly expanded his power westward across central and western India, taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers following the withdrawal by Alexander the Great. By 320 BC, the Maurya Empire had fully occupied [[northwestern India]] as well as defeating and conquering the [[satrap]]s left by Alexander. Under Emperor [[Ashoka the Great]], the Maurya Empire became the first Indian empire to conquer the whole Indian Peninsula — an achievement repeated only twice, by the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Empires. In the reign of Ashoka [[Buddhism]] spread to become the dominant religion in many parts of the ancient India.{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}}

In 221 BC, China became an empire when the [[Qin (state)|State of Qin]] ended the chaotic [[Warring States period]] through its [[Qin's wars of unification|conquest]] of the [[Seven Warring States|other six states]], starting the [[Qin dynasty|Qin Empire]] (221–207 BC). Its sovereign adopted the new title of ''[[Emperor of China|Huangdi]]'' (皇帝), which is translated in English as "Emperor". The Qin Empire is known for the construction of the [[Great Wall of China]] and the [[Terracotta Army]], as well as the standardization of currency, weights, measures and writing system. It laid the foundation for China's first golden age, the [[Han dynasty]] (202 BC–AD 9, AD 25–220). The Han Empire [[Protectorate of the Western Regions|expanded into Central Asia]] and established trade through the [[Silk Road]]. [[Confucianism]] was, for the first time, adopted as an official state ideology. During the reign of the [[Emperor Wu of Han]], the [[Xiongnu]] were pacified. By this time, only four empires stretched between the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]: the Han Empire of China, the [[Kushan Empire]], the [[Parthian Empire]] of Persia, and the [[Roman Empire]]. The [[end of the Han dynasty|collapse of the Han Empire]] in AD 220 saw China fragmented into the [[Three Kingdoms]], only to be unified once again by the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin Empire]] (AD 266–420). The relative weakness of the Jin Empire plunged China into political disunity that would last from AD 304 to AD 589 when the [[Sui dynasty|Sui Empire]] (AD 581–618) reunited China.{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}}

The Romans were the first people to invent and embody the concept of "empire" in their two mandates: to wage war and to make and execute laws.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} They were the most extensive Western empire until the [[early modern period]], and left a lasting impact on European society. Many languages, cultural values, religious institutions, political divisions, urban centers, and legal systems can trace their origins to the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire governed and rested on exploitative actions. They took slaves and money from the peripheries to support the imperial center.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} However, the absolute reliance on conquered peoples to carry out the empire's fortune, sustain wealth, and fight wars would ultimately lead to the collapse of the Roman Empire.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} The Romans were strong believers in what they called their "civilizing mission". This term was legitimized and justified by writers like Cicero who wrote that only under Roman rule could the world flourish and prosper.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} This ideology, that was envisioned to bring a new world order, was eventually spread across the Mediterranean world and beyond. People started to build houses like Romans, eat the same food, wear the same clothes and engage in the same games.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} Even rights of citizenship and authority to rule were granted to people not born within Roman territory.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}}

The Latin word ''[[imperium]]'' derives from ''imperare'', meaning "to command", and originally referred to a magistrate's authority (usually in a military sense). As the Roman state expanded overseas, the term began to be used to describe Rome's authority over its [[colony|colonies]] and [[client state|client states]]. Successful generals were often given the title ''[[imperator]]'', an honorific roughly meaning "commander". Although historians use the terms "Republic" and "Empire" to identify the periods of Roman history before and after absolute power was assumed by [[Augustus]], the Romans themselves continued to refer to their government as the ''[[Res publica]]'', meaning "public affair". On the other hand, the concept of ''imperium Romanum'', as in, the authority of the Romans, is attested since the 2nd century BC. The modern concepts of "Empire" and "Emperor" did not appear until several centuries later, long after the fall of Rome in the West. Augustus established a new ''[[de facto]]'' monarchy, but sought to maintain the appearance of a republican government. He and his early successors used the informal titles of ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]'' and ''[[princeps]]'', but over time the title of ''imperator'' came to denote the office of (what is now referred to as) "[[Roman emperor|emperor]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burger |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQUs2QnC2F4C&pg=PA115 |title=The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-432-3 |page=115}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hornblower |first1=Simon |url= |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |last2=Spawforth |first2=Antony |last3=Eidinow |first3=Esther |date=2012 |publisher= OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |pages=730 |language= |chapter=Imperium |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA730}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hornblower |first1=Simon |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |last2=Spawforth |first2=Antony |last3=Eidinow |first3=Esther |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-1995-4556-8 |pages=728 |chapter=Imperator |publisher=OUP Oxford |doi= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728}}</ref>

The [[Roman Catholic Church]], founded in the early Imperial Period, spread across Europe, first by the activities of Christian evangelists, and later by official imperial promulgation. The legal systems of [[France]] and its former colonies are strongly influenced by Roman law.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ken Pennington |title=France – Legal History |url=http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/FranceLegalHistory.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929015635/http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/FranceLegalHistory.htm |archive-date=September 29, 2013 |access-date=September 23, 2013 |publisher=Columbus School of Law and School of Canon Law, The Catholic University of America}}</ref> Similarly, the United States was founded on a model inspired by the [[Roman Republic]], with upper and lower legislative assemblies, and executive power vested in a single individual, the president. The president, as "commander-in-chief" of the armed forces, reflects the ancient Roman titles ''imperator princeps''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Haven |first=Cynthia |author-link=Cynthia Haven |date=February 19, 2010 |title=Stanford scholar links Rome and America in Philadelphia exhibition |url=http://news.stanford.edu/news/2010/february15/caroline-winterer-qanda-021910.html |publisher=Stanford Report}}</ref> Since 2002, all the world is divided between [[Unified combatant command#List_of_combatant_commands|US "commands"]] literally reflecting Roman ''imperia''.

===Post-classical period===
{{Multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| header            = Empires of the Post-classical period
| header_background = #f8eaba
| image1            = Justinian555AD.png
| caption1          = [[Eastern Roman Empire]] in 555
| image2            = The Sasanian Empire at its apex under Khosrow II.svg
| caption2          = The [[Sasanian Empire]] at its greatest extent in c. 620 under Khosrow II
| image3            = Caliphate 740-en.svg
| caption3          = The extent of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in 740
| image4            = Tang Dynasty circa 700 CE.png
| caption4          = The territory directly held by the [[Tang dynasty|Tang Empire]] of China in 700 AD
| image5            = Rajendra Chola Empire.png
| caption5          = [[Chola Empire]] c.1030
| image6            = Expansion of the Mongol Empire.svg
| caption6          = [[Mongol Empire]] in the 13th century
| image7            = Map of the Delhi Sultanate.png
| caption7          = The [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] at its greatest extent in 1335
| image8            = Map of the Serbian Empire, University of Belgrade, 1922.jpg
| caption8          = [[Serbian Empire]] in 1350
}}

In [[Western Asia]], the term "[[History of Iran|Persian Empire]]" came to denote the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] imperial states established in the pre–[[Islam]]ic and, beginning with the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Empire]], modern [[Persia]].{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}} In the 7th century, the [[Caliphate|Arab Empire]] was established by Muhammad, the founder of Islam.<ref>Hoyland, Robert G. (2014). ''In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire''. (Oxford University Press). ISBN 978-0-19-991636-8.</ref> Over the next century, in one of the fastest and vastest expansions in history,<ref>Buchan, James (21 July 2007). "Children of empire". ''The Guardian''.</ref> his Empire conquered Persia and expanded on three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe). At their height, under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], the territory that was conquered by the Arab Empire stretched from Iberia (at the Pyrenees) in the west to India (at Sind) in the east. In 751 AD, the Arab and [[Tang dynasty|Chinese]] Empires clashed in the [[Battle of Talas]]. These two Empires crossed the whole Old World from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

In [[East Asia]], various [[Chinese Empire|Chinese empires]] (or [[Dynasties of China|dynasties]]) dominated the political, economic and cultural landscapes during this era, the most powerful of which was probably the [[Tang dynasty|Tang Empire]] (618–690, 705–907). Other influential Chinese empires during the post-classical period include the [[Sui dynasty|Sui Empire]] (581–618), the [[Liao dynasty|Great Liao Empire]], the [[Song dynasty|Song Empire]], the [[Western Xia|Western Xia Empire]] (1038–1227), the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Great Jin Empire]] (1115–1234), the [[Qara Khitai|Western Liao Empire]] (1124–1218), the [[Yuan dynasty|Great Yuan Empire]] (1271–1368), and the [[Ming dynasty|Great Ming Empire]] (1368–1644). During this period, Japan and Korea underwent voluntary [[Sinicization]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ancient Japan |encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/japan/ |access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ancient Japanese & Chinese Relations |encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1085/ancient-japanese--chinese-relations/ |access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ancient Korean & Chinese Relations |encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/984/ancient-korean--chinese-relations/ |access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref> The Sui, Tang and Song empires had the world's largest economy and were the most technologically advanced during their time;<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8kfAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA264 Bulliet & Crossley & Headrick & Hirsch & Johnson 2014], p. 264.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lockard |first=Craig |date=1999 |title=Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk5/tangci.pdf |journal=Encarta Historical Essays}}</ref> the Great Yuan Empire was the world's [[List of largest empires#Empires at their greatest extent|ninth largest empire]] by total land area; while the Great Ming Empire is famous for the [[Ming treasure voyages|seven maritime expeditions]] led by [[Zheng He]].{{Sfn|Stearns|2001}}

Around the 6th century, the [[Yamato Kingship|Yamato clan]] set up Japan's first empire and [[Imperial House of Japan|first and only dynasty]].<ref>Henshall, Kenneth (2012). ''A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower''. (London: Palgrave Macmillan), p 16, https://books.google.co.il/books?id=vD76fF5hqf8C&redir_esc=y</ref> During the next two centuries, Japan's kingdoms and tribes came to be unified under this dynasty. The [[Japanese emperor]] adopted the Chinese title [[Son of Heaven]]. [[Emperor Kinmei]] (509–571) is considered the first historically verifiable Japanese emperor.<ref>Hoye, Timothy (1999). ''Japanese Politics: Fixed and Floating Worlds''. (New Jersey: Texas Women's University), p 78, https://archive.org/details/japanesepolitics0000hoye/page/78/mode/2up?view=theater</ref> The Japanese imperial dynasty continues to this day, albeit in an almost entirely ceremonial role, and represents the [[List of oldest monarchies in the world|oldest continuous hereditary monarchy in the world]].

The [[Ajuran Sultanate]] was a [[Somalis|Somali]] empire in the medieval times that dominated the [[Indian Ocean]] trade. It was a [[Somali people|Somali]] [[Muslim]] [[sultanate]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Luling |first=Virginia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0Y_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA17 |title=Somali Sultanate: the Geledi city-state over 150 years |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-874209-98-0 |page=17}}</ref><ref>Luc Cambrézy, Populations réfugiées: de l'exil au retour, p.316</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mukhtar |first=Mohamed Haji |year=1989 |title=The Emergence and Role of Political Parties in the Inter-River Region of Somalia from 1947–1960 |url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7h11k656 |journal=[[Ufahamu]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |page=98|doi=10.5070/F7172016882 |doi-access=free }}</ref> that ruled over large parts of the [[Horn of Africa]] in the [[Medieval|Middle Ages]]. Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an [[Oromo people|Oromo]] [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Oromo battles|invasion]] from the west and a [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese battles|Ajuran-Portuguese wars]]. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali maritime enterprise]] were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from many kingdoms and empires in [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], [[Europe]], [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]] and [[East Africa]].<ref name="Shapes">{{Cite book |last=Shelley |first=Fred M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qlXatHRJtMC&pg=PA358 |title=Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's Borders |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-61069-106-2 |page=358}}</ref>

In the 7th century, [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] witnessed the rise of a [[Buddhist]] thallasocracy, the [[Srivijaya Empire]], which thrived for 600 years and was succeeded by the Hindu-Buddhist [[Majapahit Empire]] that ruled from the 13th to 15th centuries. In the Southeast Asian mainland, the Hindu-Buddhist [[Khmer Empire]] was centered in the city of [[Angkor]] and flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries. Following the demise of the Khmer Empire, the Siamese Empire flourished alongside the Burmese and Lan Chang Empires from the 13th through the 18th centuries.

In [[Southeastern Europe|Southeastern]] and [[Eastern Europe]], during 917, the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], sometimes called the Byzantine Empire, was forced to recognize the Imperial title of [[Bulgaria]]n ruler [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon the Great]], who were then called [[Tsar]], the first ruler to hold that precise imperial title. The [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]], established in the region in 680–681, remained a major power in [[Southeast Europe]] until its fall in the late 14th century. Bulgaria gradually reached its cultural and territorial apogee in the 9th century and early 10th century under [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Prince Boris I]] and Simeon I, when it became one of the largest states in Europe. This period is considered the [[Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dvornik |first=Francis |title=The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences |year=1956 |location=Boston |page=179 |quote=The Psalter and the Book of Prophets were adapted or "modernized" with special regard to their use in Bulgarian churches, and it was in this school that [[Glagolitic script|glagolitic writing]] was replaced by the so-called [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic writing]], which was more akin to the Greek [[uncial]], which simplified matters considerably and is still used by the Orthodox Slavs.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Florin Curta |url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-81539-0 |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |pages=[https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt/page/221 221]–222 |quote=Cyrillic preslav. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=J. M. Hussey, Andrew Louth |title=Oxford History of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-161488-0 |page=100 |chapter=The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-H9BTVHKRMC&q=The+Orthodox+Church+in+the+Byzantine+Empire+Cyrillic+preslav+eastern&pg=PR3-IA34}}</ref>

At the time, in the [[Medieval period|Medieval West]], the title "empire" had a specific technical meaning that was exclusively applied to states that considered themselves the heirs and successors of the Roman Empire. Among these were the "Byzantine Empire", which was the actual continuation of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern portion of the Roman Empire]], the [[Carolingian Empire]], the largely Germanic [[Holy Roman Empire]], and the [[Russian Empire]]. Yet, these states did not always fit the geographic, political, or military profiles of empires in the modern sense of the word. To legitimise their ''imperium'', these states directly claimed the title of ''Empire'' from Rome. The ''sacrum Romanum imperium'' (Holy Roman Empire), which lasted from 800 to 1806, claimed to have exclusively comprehended Christian principalities, and was only nominally a discrete imperial state. The Holy Roman Empire was not always centrally-governed, as it had neither core nor peripheral territories, and was not governed by a central, politico-military elite. Hence, [[Voltaire]]'s remark that the Holy Roman Empire "was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire" is accurate to the degree that it ignores<ref>{{Citation |title=Voltaire |url=http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Voltaire |publisher=[[Wikiquote]], citing Essai sur l'histoire generale et sur les moeurs et l'espirit des nations, Chapter 70 (1756) |access-date=2008-01-06}}</ref> German rule over Italian, French, Provençal, Polish, Flemish, Dutch, and Bohemian populations, and the efforts of the ninth-century [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s (i.e., the [[Ottonians]]) to establish central control. Voltaire's "nor an empire" observation applies to its late period.

In the thirteenth century, [[Genghis Khan]] expanded the [[Mongol Empire]] to be the largest contiguous empire in the world history. However, within two generations, the empire was separated into four discrete khanates under Genghis Khan's grandsons. One of them, [[Kublai Khan]], conquered China and established the [[Yuan dynasty]] with the imperial capital at [[Beijing]]. One family ruled the whole Eurasian land mass from the Pacific to the Adriatic and Baltic Seas. The emergence of the [[Pax Mongolica]] had significantly eased [[trade]] and [[commerce]] across Asia.<ref>Gregory G. Guzman, "Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history?", ''The Historian'' 50 (1988), 568–570</ref><ref>[[Thomas T. Allsen]], ''Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia'', 211</ref>

In 1204, after the [[Fourth Crusade]] conquered [[Constantinople]], the [[Crusades|crusaders]] established a [[Latin Empire]] (1204–1261) in that city, while the defeated Byzantine Empire's descendants established two smaller, short-lived empires in [[Asia Minor]]: the [[Empire of Nicaea]] (1204–1261) and the [[Empire of Trebizond]] (1204–1461). Constantinople was retaken in 1261 by the Byzantine successor state centered in [[Nicaea]], re-establishing the [[Byzantine Empire]] until 1453, by which time the [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]]-[[Muslim]] [[Ottoman Empire]] (ca. 1300–1918), had conquered most of the region. The Ottoman Empire was a successor of the Abbasid Empire and one of the most powerful empires in the world.{{Sfn|Howe|2002|page=46}} Centered on modern day Turkey, the Ottoman Empire overthrew the Byzantine Empire and dominated the eastern Mediterranean, battering at Austria and Malta, key geographical locations to central and south-west Europe respectively.{{Sfn|Howe|2002|page=46}}

This was not just a rivalry of East and West but a rivalry between Christians and Muslims.{{Sfn|Howe|2002|page=46}} Both the Christians and Muslims had alliances with other countries.{{Sfn|Howe|2002|page=46}} The flows of trade and of cultural influences across the supposed great divide never ceased, so the countries never stopped bartering with each other.{{Sfn|Howe|2002}} These epochal clashes between civilizations profoundly shaped many people's thinking back then, and continues to do so in the present day.{{Sfn|Howe|2002|page=30}} Modern hatred against Muslim communities in South-Eastern Europe, mainly in Bosnia and Kosovo, has often been articulated in terms of seeing them as unwelcome residues of this imperialism: in short, as Turks.{{Sfn|Howe|2002|page=47}}

===Early Modern period===
{{Multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| header            = Early Modern Empires
| header_background = #f8eaba
| image1            = Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg
| caption1          = The three Muslim [[Gunpowder empires]]: [[Mughals]], [[Safavids]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in 18th century
| image2            = Ming Empire cca 1580 (en).svg
| caption2          = The [[Ming Empire]] of China in 1550
}}

In 1547, [[Ivan the Terrible]] was coronated as [[Tsar|Emperor of Russia]]. He transformed Russia from a medieval state to a fledgling empire and began the [[Russian conquest of Siberia|conquest of Siberia]]. With this conquest completed by 1778, the Russian Empire became the second contiguous empire in size after the Mongol Empire.
  
The Islamic [[gunpowder empires]] started to develop from the 15th century.{{Sfn|Khan|2005|page=54}} In the [[Indian subcontinent]], the [[Delhi Sultanate]] conquered most of the Indian peninsula and spread [[Islam]] across it. It later disintegrated with the establishment of the [[Bengal Sultanate|Bengal]], [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], and [[Bahmani Sultanate]]. In the 16th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] was founded by [[Timur]] and [[Genghis Khan]]'s direct descendant [[Babur]]. His successors such [[Humayun]], [[Akbar]], [[Jahangir]] and [[Shah Jahan]] extended the empire. In the 17th century, [[Aurangzeb]] expanded the [[Mughal Empire]] over most of the [[South Asia]] and imposed [[Sharia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Roy |title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-95036-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chapra |first=Muhammad Umer |title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance |date=2014 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-78347-572-8 |pages=62–63 |language=en}}</ref> The Mughal Empire became the world's largest economy and leading manufacturing power with a nominal GDP that valued a quarter of world GDP, superior than the combination of [[Europe]]'s GDP.<ref name="Parthasarathi38">{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38 |pages=39–45 |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com">[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, pages 259–261</ref> It has been estimated that the Mughal emperors controlled an unprecedented one-fourth of the world's entire economy and was home to one-fourth of the world's population at the time.<ref name="harrison">{{Cite book |last=[[Lawrence Harrison (academic)|Lawrence E. Harrison]], [[Peter L. Berger]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RB0oAQAAIAAJ |title=Developing cultures: case studies |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-95279-8 |page=158}}</ref> After the death of Aurangzeb, which marks the end of the medieval India and the beginning of European invasion in India, the empire was weakened by [[Nader Shah]]'s invasion.<ref name="Browne">{{Cite web |title=An Outline of the History of Persia During the Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722–1922) |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=33 |access-date=2010-09-24 |website=Edward G. Browne |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute |location=London |page=33 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052417/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=33 }}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore Empire]] was established by [[Hyder Ali]] and [[Tipu Sultan]], who allied with [[Napoleon Bonaparte]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Goldfarb |first=Michael |date=18 March 2007 |title=Napoleon, the Jews and French Muslims |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/18/opinion/18iht-edgoldfarb.4943373.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=25 June 2015|title=Voltaire, Rousseau and Napoleon on Prophet Muhammad|url=http://www.ihistory.co/enlightened-french-disbelievers-on-prophet-muhammad/|access-date=31 May 2019|archive-date=28 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328230931/http://www.ihistory.co/enlightened-french-disbelievers-on-prophet-muhammad/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bonaparte and Islam · Liberty, Equality, Fraternity |url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2938 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528112838/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2938 |archive-date=2019-05-28 |access-date=2019-05-31}}</ref> Other independent empires were also established, such as those ruled by the [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad|Nawabs of Bengal]]<ref name="hassanalimirza2">{{Cite web |last=Murshidabad.net |date=8 May 2012 |title=Hassan Ali Mirza's succession |url=http://murshidabad.net/history/history-topic-hassan-ali.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120802033722/http://murshidabad.net/history/history-topic-hassan-ali.htm |archive-date=2 August 2012 |access-date=10 August 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and [[Nizam of Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ian Copland |title=A History of State and Religion in India |last2=Ian Mabbett |last3=Asim Roy |last4=Kate Brittlebank |last5=Adam Bowles |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |page=161 |display-authors=3}}</ref>

The [[Qing dynasty|Great Qing Empire]] of China (1644–1912) was the [[List of largest empires#Empires at their greatest extent|fourth largest empire]] in world history by total land area, and [[Legacy of the Qing dynasty|laid the foundation for the modern territorial claims]] of both the [[China|People's Republic of China]] and the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]]. Apart from having direct control over much of East Asia, the empire also exerted domination over [[List of tributaries of China#Qing|other states]] through the [[Tributary system of China|Chinese tributary system]]. The multiethnic and multicultural nature of the Great Qing Empire was crucial to the subsequent birth of the nationalistic concept of ''[[zhonghua minzu]]''. The empire reached its peak during the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]], after which the empire entered a period of prolonged decline, culminating in its collapse as a result of the [[Xinhai Revolution]].

The [[Ashanti Empire]] (or Confederacy), also Asanteman (1701–1896), was a [[West African]] state of the [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]], the [[Akan people]] of the [[Ashanti Region]], Akanland in modern-day Ghana. The Ashanti (or Asante) were a powerful, militaristic and highly disciplined people in West Africa. Their military power, which came from effective strategy and an early adoption of European [[firearm]]s, created an empire that stretched from central Akanland (in modern-day Ghana) to present day [[Benin]] and [[Ivory Coast]], bordered by the [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]] kingdom to the north and [[Dahomey]] to the east. Due to the empire's military prowess, sophisticated hierarchy, social stratification and culture, the Ashanti empire had one of the largest [[historiographies]] of any indigenous [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]n political entity.

In the pre-Columbian Americas, two Empires were prominent—the [[Aztec]]a in Mesoamerica and [[Inca]] in Peru. Both existed for several generations before the arrival of the Europeans. Inca had gradually conquered the whole of the settled Andean world as far south as today Santiago in Chile. In [[Oceania]], the [[Tu'i Tonga Empire|Tonga Empire]] was a lonely empire that existed from the [[Late Middle Ages]] to the Modern period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomson |first=Basil |date=January 1901 |title=Note Upon the Natives of Savage Island, or Niue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1840765 |journal=The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=31 |pages=137–145 |doi=10.2307/2842790 |jstor=2842790}}</ref>

===Colonial empires===
{{main article|Colonial empire}}
[[File:Portugal Império total.png|thumb|right|200px|All areas of the world that were once part of the [[Portuguese Empire]]. The Portuguese established in the early 16th century together with the [[Spanish Empire]] the first global empire and trade network.<ref>[https://www.amazon.com/Conquerors-Portugal-Forged-Global-Empire/dp/0812994000] ''Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire'', Author: Roger Crowley, Publisher: Random House; 1st edition, year: 2015</ref>]]{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2019}}
Beginning in the 15th century, a number of west European countries reached and colonized overseas regions across the globe. Ushering the [[Age of Discovery]], the imperial expansion advanced to a new global scale. The extensive overseas expansion, particularly in the South Asia and Americas by the Portuguese and Spanish, later joined by the English, French and Dutch, created empires on which the [[Sun never sets]]. The global scale is one of main distinctions between the colonial and traditional land empires.<ref>Adas, Michael (1998). "Imperialism and Colonialism in Comparative Perspective,"  ''International History Review'', vol 20 (2), p 371,  https://www.jstor.org/stable/40108227</ref><ref>Blakemore, Erin (August 16, 2024). "What is Colonialism," ''National Geographic'', https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/colonialism</ref> Colonial empires were a transformative period in world history when previously isolated parts of the world became connected to form one [[world system]], laid the groundwork for globalization, and set human history on the global common course.

The [[Portuguese Empire]] colonized vast portions of the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania to become one of the most powerful empires of the period, the longest-lived [[colonial empire]] in European history,<ref>Page, Melvin E. & Sonnenburg, Penny M. (2003). ''Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia'', vol 2, p 481.</ref><ref>Brockey, Liam Matthew (2008). ''Portuguese Colonial Cities in the Early Modern World''. (Ashgate Publishing), p XV.</ref> and one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires]] in history. The [[Spanish Empire]] expanded over the same continents as well as in Europe,<ref>Thomas, Hugh (2015). ''World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II'' (Penguin).</ref> exceeding the Portuguese rival in size and, among colonial empires, remaining second only to Britain.<ref name="Taagepera1997">{{cite journal|author=Taagepera|first=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt3cn68807/qt3cn68807.pdf|url-status=live|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|pages=492–502|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|jstor=2600793|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707203055/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3cn68807/qt3cn68807.pdf|archive-date=2020-07-07|access-date=2020-07-07}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

[[File:Modern Empires - en.svg|thumb|350px|Diachronic map of the main empires of the modern era (1492–1945)]]
{{Multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| header            = Empires of the Modern period
| header_background = #f8eaba
| image1            = Map of territorial growth 1775.jpg
| caption1          = Red shows self-governing North American British colonies and pink shows claimed and largely indirectly controlled territories in 1775.
| image2            = 
| caption2          = 
| image3            = Ottoman empire.svg
| caption3          = [[Ottoman Empire]] at its greatest extent
| image4            = Spanish Empire Anachronous en.svg
| caption4          = [[Spanish empire|Spanish]]–[[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]] Empire of the [[Iberian Union]] (1580–1640) was the first global imperial entity. The map includes all Spanish territories, but only territories Portugal had during the Iberian Union.
| image5            = French Empire on World 1812.png
| caption5          = The map includes Napoleon's [[First French empire]] with its colonial ownership in 1812. [[Napoleon]]'s rule over Europe led to massive changes not only in Europe but across the world.
| image6            = The Russian Empire-en.svg
| caption6          = [[Russian Empire]] in 1866 became the second largest contiguous empire to have ever existed. [[Russia|The Russian Federation]] is currently the largest state on the planet.
| image7            = BritishEmpire1919.png
| caption7          = In 1920, the [[British Empire]] was [[List of largest empires|the largest empire in history]].
| image8            = EmpireFrench.png
| caption8          = Evolution of the [[French colonial empire|French Empire]] in the 16th to the 20th century. In 1920, the [[French colonial empire]] was [[List of largest empires|the second largest empire in the world]].
| image9            = Italian Empire.png
| caption9          = [[Italian colonial empire|Italian Empire]] in 1942
| image10           = Qing dynasty in 1760.svg
| caption10         = China's [[Qing dynasty|Qing Empire]] in 1760
| image11           = Japanese Empire (orthographic projection).svg
| caption11         = 19th to 20th century [[Empire of Japan]] at its maximum extent, 1942
}}

The [[British Empire]] established an [[List of largest empires|absolute imperial record in size]] and, for a century, was the foremost global power.<ref>[[Niall Ferguson|Ferguson, Niall]] (2002). ''Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power''. (Basic Books).</ref> The British established their [[First British Empire|first empire]] (1583–1783) in North America by colonising lands that made up [[British America]], including parts of [[History of Canada#Canada under British rule (1763–1867)|Canada]], the [[Caribbean]] and the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. In 1776, the [[Continental Congress]] of the Thirteen Colonies declared itself independent from the British Empire, thus beginning the [[American Revolution]]. Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacific, and later Africa, with subsequent exploration and conquests leading to the rise of the [[Second British Empire]] (1783–1815), which was followed by the [[Industrial Revolution]] and [[Britain's Imperial Century]] (1815–1914). It became the [[World's largest empires|largest empire]] in world history, encompassing one quarter of the world's land area and one fifth of its population.<ref>Johnston, Steve, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkN1SF6NgsC&dq=%22By+1922%2C+the+British+Empire+presided%22&pg=PA90 Tea Party Culture War: A Clash of Worldviews]{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, p90, "By 1922, the British Empire presided over 458 million people—one-quarter of the world's population—and comprised more than 13 million square miles."</ref> The impacts of this period are still prominent in the current age "including widespread use of the English language, belief in Protestant religion, economic globalization, modern precepts of law and order, and representative democracy."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Watts |first=Carl P |title=Pax Britannica |url=https://www.academia.edu/2013776 |page=3 |quote=it left many legacies, including widespread use of the English language, belief in Protestant religion, economic globalization, modern precepts of law and order, and representative democracy.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Winks |first=Robin W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mY7McxJl7jYC&pg=PA406 |title=World civilization: a brief history |date=1993 |publisher=Collegiate Press |isbn=978-0-939693-28-3 |edition=2nd |location=San Diego, CA |page=406 |quote=By 1914 common law, trail by jury, the King James Authorized Version of the Bible, the English language, and the British navy had been spread around the globe.}}</ref>

In India, Britain confronted the [[Sikh Empire]] (1799–1849) in the Punjab region. Weakened by the death of its founder, [[Ranjit Singh]], in 1839, the empire fell to the British after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh war|Second Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1849. During the same period, the [[Maratha Empire]] (also known as the Maratha Confederacy) was a Hindu state located in present-day India. It existed from 1674 to 1818, and at its peak, the empire's territories covered much of Southern Asia. The empire was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. After the death of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor Aurangzeb, it expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat, which halted the expansion of the empire. Later, the empire was divided into a confederacy of states which, in 1818, were lost to the British during the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha wars]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pagadi |first=Setumadhavarao R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVFuAAAAMAAJ |title=Shivaji |publisher=National Book Trust, India |year=1983 |isbn=978-81-237-0647-4 |page=21}}</ref>

France was a dominant empire possessing many [[colonies]] in various locations around the world. During [[Louis XIV]]'s long reign, from 1643 to 1715, France was Europe's most populous, richest and powerful country. From the 16th to the 17th centuries, the First [[French colonial empire]]’s total area at its peak in 1680 was over {{convert|10|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, the second largest empire in the world at the time behind only the [[Spanish Empire]].<ref>Robert Aldrich, ''Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion'' (1996) p 304</ref> It had many possessions around the world, mainly in the [[Americas]], [[Asia]] and [[Africa]]. At its peak in 1750, French India had an area of 1.5 million km<sup>2</sup> and a total population of 100 million people and was the most populous colony under [[French India|French rule]]. The [[Napoleonic Empire]] (1804–1814) conquered much of the continental Europe. It ruled over 90 million people and was the leading world power of the time. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonial empire of France was the second largest in the world behind the British Empire. The French colonial empire extended over {{convert|13.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s with a totaled population of 150 million people. Including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached {{convert|13.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} at the time, which is 10.0% of the Earth's total land area. The total area of the French colonial empire, with the first (mainly in the Americas and Asia) and second (mainly in Africa and Asia), the French colonial empires combined, reached {{convert|24|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, the second largest in the world (the first being the British Empire).<ref>{{cite book |editor=Melvin E. Page |title=Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC&pg=PA218 |year=2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=218 |isbn=978-1-57607-335-3 |access-date=23 December 2021 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119170748/https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC&pg=PA218 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Empire of Brazil]] (1822–1889) was the only South American modern monarchy, established by the heir of the [[Portuguese Empire]] as an independent nation eventually became an emerging international power. The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically diverse. In 1889 the monarchy was overthrown in a sudden [[coup d'état]] led by a clique of military leaders whose goal was the formation of a republic.

===Late modern period===
Beginning around 1760, the [[New Imperialism]] or [[The Age of Empire: 1875–1914|Age of Imperialism]] characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States and Japan. Though the [[American Revolutionary War]] (1775–1783) and the collapse of the [[Spanish Empire]] in [[Latin America]] in the 1820s ended the first era of European colonialism, the period featured an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments. During the era of New Imperialism, the European powers and Japan conquered almost all of Africa and most of Asia. The new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing imperial rivalries, their imperial ambitions, and a "[[civilizing mission]]".

With the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1803–1815), the [[Austrian Empire]] (1804–1867) emerged reconstituted as the Empire of [[Austria-Hungary]] (1867–1918) and claimed to "inherite" the imperium of Central and Western Europe. Another "heir to the Holy Roman Empire", was the [[German Empire]] (1871–1918).

In the course of the [[Scramble for Africa]] (1870-1914), European empires separated between themselves almost all the continent. Symbolized by the [[Pink Map]], the Portuguese claimed sovereignty over a wide land corridor stretching between the Atlantic shore of Angola and [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] shore of Mozambique. This led to the [[1890 British Ultimatum]] as Britain aimed to establish their own and longer corridor from Egypt to South Africa. In the clash of the corridors, the British prevailed.<ref>Newitt, M. (1995). ''A History of Mozambique''.  (London, Hurst & Co), p. 347.</ref>

The [[Spanish–American War]] of 1898 and the [[Russo-Japanese War]] of 1904–05 signaled the advent of new extra-European empires, the United States and Japan respectively. The two events marked the closure of the "imperial belt"--belt of great empires stretching from west to east. Originally formed in the Old World during the [[Axial Age]] along the [[Silk Road]], this belt shifted northward during the medieval period due to climatic change, penetrated to North America in the colonial period, and "closed" in the Far East c.1900.<ref>Ostrovsky, Max (2006). ''The Hyperbola of the World Order'', (Lanham: University Press of America), p 93-126, https://books.google.co.il/books?redir_esc=y&hl=ru&id=9b0gn89Ep0gC&q=imperial+belt#v=snippet&q=imperial%20belt&f=false</ref> The history of empires ceased being eurocentric. The [[Pearl Harbor attack]] symbolized the fact that two non-European empires clashed on the opposite to Europe place of the globe.

The world political map was completed c.1900 leaving no sovereign void and with empires ruling over four-fifth of the world. A contemporary observer, [[Max Weber]], generalized that great empires claim spheres of interest over a wide orbit and in the 1900s "such orbits encompass the whole surface of the planet."<ref>Weeber, Max (1910). ''From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology''. (tr. Mills, C. Wright, London: Routeledge), p 161.</ref> Though seldom viewed through an imperial lens, the World Wars were imperial wars.<ref>[[Richard H. Immerman|Immerman, Richard H]]. (2010). ''Empire for Liberty: A History of American Imperialism from Benjamin Franklin to Paul Wolfowitz''. (Princeton: Princeton University Press), p 2, https://books.google.co.il/books?id=gTgEl8PN5PEC&printsec=frontcover&hl=ru&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref><ref>[[Akira Iriye|Iriye, Akira]] (Spring 2005). “Beyond imperialism: The new internationalism.” ''Daedalus'', vol 134 (2): p 110, https://watermark.silverchair.com/0011526053887392.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAA0YwggNCBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggMzMIIDLwIBADCCAygGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMIhu2mzoz8Cmg4fiYAgEQgIIC-VBVvSJv77PYchnly4waME6e0RtyQLMXyNsin-xKVRfoP116XGsFizysZ2cK9xByLqNjd7_3G7_ADNyIdhmFQ81jDBjjak28vH9EAf4GwctoFq7rs3j24aJ4snTcl8pDs2TsmRwf0q0UOe6KUpqpAN3saNqq0cM6DvhEudUV_CYFwSZFuSwoUsMeKBaC9vRRlqk74a8AQNJ2qfuT5d_2yLbk1Qh7WiaFB74YjzgqmP4BppN_B-EInElAdpyDwXudFLlkC2o3qFxe8pJ-dZ4g8zTdgph-sMTe_ys55TqNb3yHYed6GBnjJoGT2gkdqlwNEiSwKtyEpIm9KcvWlQQSO7B9jMEmkAalICNHJ_ADi_gSR2T5DZaXxzPvu_qqnCfNJ2APCIEjHiTKCVmv2lOnMcApVaZ-OhXeHv54ob_6mZTji2z1kCjXmWGsuRXAYIz6znBLNSbbiMYyHLj5cnGPWPsAPrZ2PZeQal1lkITBDFJEc9Q_JCE8miYsnf1hPEbZHXA8hV-AB7ihTCixnWQZaNlvXUIgMLDKzduCsV5qTJfcfh7WuIdVPBT8QAzhXSNgjWOiwt5EfNiVA1ftRVz6Je4hoF8R2yY06PT_bnlzUMBUXjMBF-LQ9H1c56kHJuwRf7z8YgHDsstidXUSauipRtbFvgQoX0VyDPfIJ_tKKKVMBDj7RCPtFKkjp0c1GhRKKn5qvSQ9IFqVnMv0TtzZ0Kmj_T4sLhHlWDJaiccEeFf8eNEHqblM3xtMBfW8D_5CcQIEUrJsp8u3rppZPc-maUurz-7rPmifZyBqxCLu-rXbbqUL11LmY6kEbun8AVIcvl38Md7Zuu2BhEFZYfk-T5cJBtJCBYEPTWG_wlKTnO7qUFp-Qdd1ZEkZLIDpq7WDOFKXameKfxUj7BD6K72fKDtsf0sYG1pY_FCbH-hrkAhPZKsQDprYoZNiyyqdp46ta5AbDr0WWAqXTRAHWMBXidJ_PMvbXBtoaRArv8X92FlZVwN5bAo6rDVd</ref> All great powers which waged both World Wars were empires fighting for their survival or expansion.<ref>Gerwarth, Robert & Manela, Erez (2014). ''Empires at War, 1911-1923''. (New York: Oxford University Press), p 14-15.</ref><ref>Jackson, Ashley (2000). "History of empires and conflicts: World War II and empire," ''Global Security and International Poliitcal Economy''. (ed. Colas, Alejandro, UNESCO-EOLSS), vol 1, p 1-2.</ref>

Many scholars suppose that the end of the overseas space for imperial expansion contributed to the intensity of the World Wars if not was their main factor (chapter "Circumscription theory" below). According to one thesis, the overseas world provided European empires with an enormous outlet and thus prevented Europe from unifying into a single European empire. The European powers turned their exceeding energies outward and the internal European [[Balance of power (international relations)|power was balanced]].<ref>Ostrovsky, Max, (2007). ''The Hyperbola of the World Order'', (Lanham: University Press of America), p 50, https://books.google.co.il/books?redir_esc=y&hl=ru&id=9b0gn89Ep0gC&q=imperial+belt#v=snippet&q=balanced&f=false</ref> Correspondingly, the thesis continues,<ref>Ostrovsky, Max, (2007). ''The Hyperbola of the World Order'', (Lanham: University Press of America), p 129-140, https://books.google.co.il/books?redir_esc=y&hl=ru&id=9b0gn89Ep0gC&q=imperial+belt#v=onepage&q=ratzel&f=false</ref>  when the space for expansion ended, the empires became destined for head-on collisions, as reflected in the anxious,<ref>Bell, Duncan (2007). ''The Idea of Great Britain: Empire and the Future of World order, 1860-1900''. (New Jersey: Princeton University Press), p 37-39, https://books.google.co.il/books?id=qFX7QB7bLVsC&printsec=frontcover&hl=ru&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref><ref>[[Gavin Plumley|Plumley, Gavin]] (27 September 2013). "Anxiety attack: Faces from the fin-de-siècle. An exhibition of turn-of-the-century portraits reveals troubled times," ''Independent'', https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/anxiety-attack-faces-from-the-findesiecle-8844684.html</ref> [[Claustrophobia|claustrophobic]]<ref>[[Christopher John Bartlett|Bartlett, Christopher John]] (2000). ''The Global Conflict: The International Rivalry of the Great Powers, 1880-1990''. (London & New York: Longman), p 22, https://archive.org/details/globalconflictin0000bart/page/22/mode/2up?view=theater</ref> mood of the [[Fin de siècle]]. This was the time when the theory of [[lebensraum]] developed and the term [[geopolitics]] was coined to designate a new science, accompanied by an avalanche of literature envisaging war.<ref>[[I. F. Clarke|Clarke, Ignatius Frederick]] (1995). ''The Tale of the Next Great War, 1871-1914: Fictions of Future Warfare and of Battles Still to Come''. (Liverpool University Press), p 15-16, 21, 25, https://archive.org/details/taleofnextgreatw00ifcl/page/14/mode/2up?view=theater</ref><ref>Clarke, Ignatius Frederick (1995). ''Voices Prophesying War: Future Wars, 1763-3749''. (New York: Oxford University Press), https://archive.org/details/voicesprophesyin0000clar/page/n7/mode/2up</ref> “Raving maniacs, described [[Halford Mackinder]] the opponents of his Empire, suffering from global claustrophobia.”<ref>[[John Gilbert Winant|Winant, John G]]., & Mackinder, Halford (1944). “The Monthly Record: Presentation of the Medals Awarded by the American Geographical Society to Two British Geographers,” ''Geographical Journal'', vol 103: p 133.</ref> Furthermore, the global closure coincided with unprecedented technological advances in weapons now produced on the industrial scale. The same year (1904), Mackinder outlined the [[Geographical Pivot of History|global closure]] and [[Henry Brooks Adams]] the [[Accelerating_change#Early observations|law of acceleration]] in technological progress and production. These factors caused a "clash of empires"<ref>[[Richard H. Immerman|Immerman, Richard H]]. (2010). ''Empire for Liberty: A History of American Imperialism from Benjamin Franklin to Paul Wolfowitz''. (Princeton: Princeton University Press), p 2, https://books.google.co.il/books?id=gTgEl8PN5PEC&printsec=frontcover&hl=ru&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> of epic proportions, as vividly described by its famous participant:
{{quote|
And the first gust of wind swept across Europe grown nervous. The time that now followed lay in the chests of men like a heavy nightmare... And then the first mighty lightening flash struck the earth ... and with the thunder of heaven there mingled the roar of World War batteries... The fight for freedom has began mightier than the Earth has ever seen.<ref>Hitler, Adolf (1925) ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' (tr, Manheim, Ralph, London: Pimlico, 1992), p 145, 148.</ref>}}
The Ottoman, Austrian and Russian Empires were defeated in the First World War, though the latter Empire soon reappeared in its [[Soviet Empire|Soviet]] form. The German, Italian and Japanese Empires were defeated in the Second World War. Weakened by the same War, the rest of the European Empires underwent [[decolonization]]. The Soviet Empire collapsed in 1989-1991. The United States remained the only superpower, but whether its foreign policy qualifies as imperial is debatable (chapters "Contemporary usage" and 'Present" below).

Egyptologist [[Barry Kemp (Egyptologist)|Barry Kemp]] developed a "basic model" of imperial evolution. At the start, according to the model, we have a number of roughly equal players. The game inexorably follows a trajectory toward a critical point when one player accumulated sufficient power to outweigh other players and becomes unstoppable. Imagining an imperial game of this kind outlines the "essence of the basic process at work in history."<ref>Kemp, Barry J. (1989). ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of Civilization''. (London & New York: Kentledge), p 32.</ref> Kemp specialized on the Bronze Age and by accident published his game theory in 1989, the moment before modern empires completed his "basic process." 

An Historian specializing on the world history explicitly applied Kemp's game analogy to modern empires. The global closure c.1900 marks the point when empires ended their "regular season" and entered "play-offs." The knock-out tournament began with "[[Wild card (sports)|wild card playoff]]" (First World War), proceeded with "breath-stopping series of quarterfinals and semifinals" (Second World War), and "culminated with a deadly boring final that went into triple overtime until the Soviets scored a golden own goal."<ref>Ostrovsky, Max, (2007). ''The Hyperbola of the World Order'', (Lanham: University Press of America), p 359-360, https://books.google.co.il/books?redir_esc=y&hl=ru&id=9b0gn89Ep0gC&q=imperial+belt#v=snippet&q=play&f=false</ref>