Editing Emotional intelligence (section)

== Models ==
Based on theoretical and methodological approaches, EI measures are categorized in three main streams:  ability-based measures (e.g. MSCEIT),  self-reports of abilities measures (e.g. SREIT, SUEIT and WLEIS), and mixed-models (e.g. AES, ECI, EI questionnaire, EIS, EQ-I and GENOS), which include measures of EI and traditional social skills.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ashkanasy NM, Daus CS |date=2005-06-01 |title=Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_13541/Ashkanasy_Daus__Dec23_04_.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=441–452 |doi=10.1002/job.320 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150725225320/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:13541/Ashkanasy_Daus__Dec23_04_.pdf |archive-date=2015-07-25}}</ref>

=== Ability model ===
Salovey and Mayer's define EI within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | vauthors = Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G | title = Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence|journal = Emotion|volume=1|issue=3| pages=232–42|date=September 2001|pmid=12934682|doi=10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.232}}
|2={{cite journal | vauthors = MacCann C, Joseph DL, Newman DA, Roberts RD|title=Emotional intelligence is a second-stratum factor of intelligence: evidence from hierarchical and bifactor models|journal=Emotion|volume=14|issue= 2|pages=358–374|date=April 2014|pmid= 24341786|doi=10.1037/a0034755}}
}}</ref> Their initial definition of EI had been "the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior".<ref name="A Dictionary of Psychology" /> They later revised the definition to "the ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth." After further research, their definition of EI evolved into "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions, to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth."<ref name="Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and Implications" />

The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment, with EI abilities manifesting in adaptive behaviors.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Mayer JD, Salovey P | chapter = What is emotional intelligence? | veditors = Salovey P, Sluyter D | title = Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators | year = 1997 | pages = 3–31 | location = New York | publisher = Basic Books | isbn = 978-0-521-51806-2 }}</ref><ref name="grewal">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salovey P, Grewal D | year = 2005 | title = The Science of Emotional Intelligence | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 14 | issue = 6| page = 6 | doi=10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00381.x | s2cid = 2143869 | url = https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/131109 }}</ref> It proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to wider cognition.

The model claims that EI includes four types of abilities:
* Perceiving emotions: the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts—including the ability to identify one's own emotions. Perceiving emotions is a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible.
* Using emotions: the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem-solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing [[mood (psychology)|moods]] in order to best fit the task at hand.
* Understanding emotions: the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.
* Managing emotions: the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. The emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.

The ability EI model has been criticized for lacking [[Face validity|face]] and [[predictive validity]] in the workplace.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bradberry TR, Su LD | title = Ability-versus skill-based assessment of emotional intelligence | journal = Psicothema | volume = 18 Suppl | pages = 59–66 | date = 2003 | pmid = 17295959 | url = https://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3277.pdf | access-date = 2014-03-07 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120905061723/http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3277.pdf | archive-date = 2012-09-05 }}</ref> However, in terms of [[construct validity]], ability EI tests have great advantage over self-report scales of EI because they compare individual maximal performance to standard performance scales and do not rely on individuals' endorsement of descriptive statements about themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brackett MA, Mayer JD | title = Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of competing measures of emotional intelligence | journal = Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 29 | issue = 9 | pages = 1147–58 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 15189610 | doi = 10.1177/0146167203254596 | s2cid = 5744173 }}</ref>

==== Measurement ====
The current measure of Mayer and Salovey's model of EI, the [[Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test]] (MSCEIT), is based on a series of emotion-based problem-solving items.<ref name="grewal"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G | title = Measuring emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2.0 | journal = Emotion | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 97–105 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12899321 | doi = 10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.97 }}</ref> Consistent with the model's claim of EI as a type of intelligence, the test is modeled on ability-based [[IQ tests]]. By testing a person's abilities on each of the four branches of emotional intelligence, it generates scores for each of the branches as well as a total score.

Central to the four-branch model is the idea that EI requires attunement to [[social norms]]. Therefore, the MSCEIT is [[consensus based assessment|scored in a consensus fashion]], with higher scores indicating higher overlap between an individual's answers and those provided by a worldwide sample of respondents. The MSCEIT can also be expert-scored so that the amount of overlap is calculated between an individual's answers and those provided by a group of 21 [[emotion|emotion researchers]].<ref name="grewal"/>

Although promoted as an ability test, the MSCEIT test is unlike standard IQ tests in that its items do not have objectively correct responses. Among other challenges, the consensus scoring criterion means that it is impossible to create items that only a minority of respondents can solve, because, by definition, responses are deemed emotionally "intelligent" only if the majority of the sample has endorsed them. This and other similar problems have led some cognitive ability experts to question the definition of EI as a genuine intelligence.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Petrides KV | chapter = Ability and Trait Emotional Intelligence | title = The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Individual Differences | veditors = Chamorro-Premuzic T, von Stumm S, Furnham A | location = London | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year = 2015 | pages = 656–78 | isbn = 978-1-119-05030-8 }}</ref>

In a study by Føllesdal, the MSCEIT test results of 111 business leaders were compared with how their employees described their leader. It was found that there were no correlations between a leader's test results and how he or she was rated by the employees, with regard to [[empathy]], ability to motivate, and leader effectiveness. Føllesdal also criticized the Canadian company Multi-Health Systems, which administers the test. The test contains 141 questions, but it was found after publishing the test that 19 of these did not give the expected answers. This has led Multi-Health Systems to remove answers to these 19 questions before scoring.<ref>{{cite thesis |title=Emotional Intelligence as Ability: Assessing the Construct Validity of Scores from the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Oslo |url=http://www.psykologi.uio.no/studier/drpsych/disputaser/follesdal_summary.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216094950/http://www.psykologi.uio.no/studier/drpsych/disputaser/follesdal_summary.html |archive-date=2008-12-16 |url-status=dead |vauthors=Føllesdal H |year=2008}}</ref>

==== Other measurements ====
Various other specific measures also assess ability in emotional intelligence. These include:
* Diagnostic Analysis of Non-verbal Accuracy (DANVA)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nowicki|first1=Stephen|last2=Duke|first2=Marshall P.|name-list-style=vanc|date=1994-03-01|title=Individual differences in the nonverbal communication of affect: The diagnostic analysis of nonverbal accuracy scale|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02169077|journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=9–35|doi=10.1007/BF02169077|s2cid=144426091|issn=1573-3653}}</ref>
* Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Matsumoto|first1=David|last2=LeRoux|first2=Jeff|last3=Wilson-Cohn|first3=Carinda|last4=Raroque|first4=Jake|last5=Kooken|first5=Kristie|last6=Ekman|first6=Paul|last7=Yrizarry|first7=Nathan|last8=Loewinger|first8=Sherry|last9=Uchida|first9=Hideko|last10=Yee|first10=Albert|last11=Amo|first11=Lisa|name-list-style=vanc|date=2000-09-01|title=A New Test to Measure Emotion Recognition Ability: Matsumoto and Ekman's Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1006668120583|journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=179–209|doi=10.1023/A:1006668120583|s2cid=18039888|issn=1573-3653}}</ref>
* Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU)<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=MacCann|first1=Carolyn|last2=Roberts|first2=Richard D.|name-list-style=vanc|year=2008|title=New paradigms for assessing emotional intelligence: Theory and data|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0012746|journal=Emotion|volume=8|issue=4|pages=540–551|doi=10.1037/a0012746|pmid=18729584|via=APA}}</ref>
* Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM).<ref name=":6" />

=== Mixed model ===
The model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills, which drive leadership performance in applied settings.<ref name="Goleman_1998" /> Goleman's model outlines five main EI constructs:{{r|hbr98}}
* [[Self-awareness]] – the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values, and goals and recognize their impact on others while using [[gut feeling]]s to guide decisions
* [[Emotional self-regulation|Self-regulation]] – involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances
* [[Social skill]] – managing relationships to get along with others
* [[Empathy]] – considering other people's feelings especially when making decisions
* [[Motivation]] – being aware of what motivates them

Goleman includes a set of [[emotional competence|emotional competencies]] within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are learned capabilities that must be developed to achieve performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.<ref name="boy">{{cite book | vauthors = Boyatzis RE, Goleman D, Rhee K | chapter = Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI). | veditors = Bar-On R, Parker JD | title = Handbook of emotional intelligence. | year = 2000 | volume = 99 | issue = 6 | pages = 343–62 | location = San Francisco | publisher = Jossey-Bass }}</ref>

==== Criticism ====
Goleman's model of EI has been criticized in the research literature as "[[pop psychology]]".<ref name="Mayer_2008" />

Goleman's early work has been criticized for assuming that EI is a type of intelligence or [[cognitive ability]]. Eysenck writes that Goleman's description of EI contains unsubstantiated assumptions about intelligence in general and that it even runs contrary to what researchers have come to expect when studying types of intelligence.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |author-link=Hans Eysenck |title=Intelligence: A New Look |vauthors=Eysenck HJ |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7658-0707-6}}</ref> Similarly, Locke claims that the concept of EI is a misinterpretation of the intelligence construct, and he offers an alternative interpretation: it is not another form or type of intelligence, but intelligence—the ability to grasp [[abstractions]]—applied to a particular life domain: emotions. He suggests the concept should be re-labeled and referred to as a skill.<ref name="locke">{{cite journal |vauthors=Locke EA |year=2005 |title=Why emotional intelligence is an invalid concept |journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=425–431 |doi=10.1002/job.318}}</ref>

==== Measurement ====
Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:
* The Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999, and the Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI), a newer edition of the ECI, which was developed in 2007. The Emotional and Social Competence – University Edition (ESCI-U) is also available. These tools, developed by Goleman and [[Richard Boyatzis|Boyatzis]], provide a behavioral measure of emotional and social competencies.
* [[The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal]], which was created in 2001 and which can be taken as a self-report or [[360-degree feedback|360-degree assessment]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bradberry T, Greaves J | title = Emotional Intelligence 2.0. | year = 2009 | location = San Francisco | publisher = Publishers Group West | isbn = 978-0-9743206-2-5 }}</ref>

=== Trait model ===
Konstantinos V. Petrides proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability-based model and a [[Phenotypic trait|trait]]-based model of EI, developing the latter over many years in a number of publications.<ref name="pet2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Furnham A | year = 2000 | title = On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 313–320 | doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00195-6| citeseerx = 10.1.1.475.5285 }}</ref><ref name="petrides07">{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Pita R, Kokkinaki F | title = The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 98 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 273–89 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17456273 | doi = 10.1348/000712606x120618 }}</ref> Trait EI is an individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities — as defined by Petrides, "a constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality."<ref name="petrides07"/> This definition of EI encompasses behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities. It is measured by [[self-report inventory|self report]], as opposed to the ability-based model which attempts to measure actual abilities, which have proven resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI is investigated within a [[personality psychology|personality]] framework.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Furnham A | year = 2001 | title = Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies | journal = European Journal of Personality | volume = 15 | issue = 6| pages = 425–448 | doi=10.1002/per.416| s2cid = 144031083 }}</ref> An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional [[self-efficacy]].{{Cn|date=September 2024}}

The trait EI model is general and subsumes the Goleman mixed model. The conceptualization of EI as a [[Trait theory|personality trait]] leads to a construct that lies outside the [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]] of human [[Cognitive skill|cognitive ability]], distinguishing its operationalization and theory from other models.<ref name="pet2000"/>

==== Measurement ====
There are many self-report measures of EI,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Pérez JC, Petrides PJ, Furnham A | chapter = Measuring trait emotional intelligence | veditors = Schulze R, Roberts RD | title = International Handbook of Emotional Intelligence. | publisher = Hogrefe & Huber | location = Cambridge, Mass. | year = 2005 | pages = 123–43 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.474.294 }}</ref> including the EQ-i, the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and the Schutte EI model. As limited measures of trait emotional intelligence, these models do not assess intelligence, abilities, or skills.<ref name="petrides07" /> The most widely used and widely researched measure of self-report or [[self-schema]] emotional intelligence is the EQ-i 2.0.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the EQ-i 2.0 and emotional intelligence? |url=https://www.eitrainingcompany.com/eq-i/ |website=The Emotional Intelligence Training Company |access-date=22 September 2024 |language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bar-On, R., & Parker, J. D. A. (Eds.) |title=The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace |date=2000}}</ref> Originally known as the [[Reuven Bar-On|BarOn]] EQ-i, it was the first self-report measure of emotional intelligence available, and the only measure predating Goleman's bestselling book.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020|reason=No sources are provided for this claim}}

The Petrides model is operationalized by the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrides KV, Furnham A | year = 2003 | title = Trait emotional intelligence: behavioral validation in two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction | journal = European Journal of Personality | volume = 17 | pages = 39–75 | doi=10.1002/per.466| s2cid = 4287409 }}</ref> which encompasses 15 subscales organized under four factors: [[Quality of life|well-being]], [[self-control]], [[emotionality]], and [[sociability]]. In a 2007 study, the [[psychometrics|psychometric]] properties of the TEIQue have been found to be [[normally distributed]] and [[reliability (statistics)|reliable]].<ref name="Mikolajczak07">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mikolajczak M, Luminet O, Leroy C, Roy E |date=June 2007 |title=Psychometric properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire: factor structure, reliability, construct, and incremental validity in a French-speaking population |journal=Journal of Personality Assessment |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=338–53 |doi=10.1080/00223890701333431 |pmid=17518555 |s2cid=21196733 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Researchers have found TEIQue scores to be unrelated to [[Raven's Progressive Matrices|Raven's matrices]] of non-verbal reasoning, which has been interpreted as support for the personality trait view of EI. TEIQue scores have also been found to be positively related to [[extraversion]], [[agreeableness]], [[openness to experience|openness]], [[conscientiousness]], while being inversely related to [[alexithymia]], [[neuroticism]]. A number of quantitative genetic studies have been carried out within the trait EI model, which have revealed significant genetic effects and heritabilities for all trait EI scores.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vernon PA, Petrides KV, Bratko D, Schermer JA | title = A behavioral genetic study of trait emotional intelligence | journal = Emotion | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 635–42 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18837613 | doi = 10.1037/a0013439 }}</ref> Two studies involving direct comparisons of multiple EI tests yielded favorable results for the TEIQue.<ref name="Martins_2010" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1080/00049530903312857 | vauthors = Gardner JK, Qualter P | year = 2010 | title = Concurrent and incremental validity of three trait emotional intelligence measures | journal = Australian Journal of Psychology | volume = 62 | pages = 5–12 }}</ref>