Editing Edward IV (section)

==Reign==
===Accession to the throne===
[[File:DacreCross.JPG|thumb|left|200px|alt=A stone post, topped with a cross, stands next to a bush in a field. An inscription on its base reads, "Battle of Towton Palm Sunday 1461"|Towton Cross, commemorating Edward's victory at the [[Battle of Towton]]]]

At this stage of Edward's career, contemporaries like [[Philippe de Commines]] described him as handsome, affable, and energetic.{{Sfn|Kleiman|2013|p=83}} Unusually tall for the period at {{Convert|6|ft|4|in|cm|abbr=off}}, he was an impressive sight in armour, and took care to wear splendid clothes. This was done deliberately to contrast him with King Henry VI, whose physical and mental frailties undermined his position.{{Sfn|Seward|1997|p=97}}

On 2 February 1461,{{Efn|Now the generally accepted date, although others suggest it was fought on 3 February}} Edward won a hard-fought victory at the [[Battle of Mortimer's Cross]] in [[Herefordshire]]. The battle was preceded by a meteorological phenomenon known as [[parhelion]], or three suns, which he took as his emblem, the "[[Sun in splendour]]".{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=4}} However, this was offset by Warwick's defeat at the [[Second Battle of St Albans]] on 17 February, the Lancastrians regaining custody of Henry VI. The two met in London, where Edward was hastily appointed king, before marching north, where the two sides met at the [[Battle of Towton]]. Fought on 29 March in the middle of a snowstorm, it was the bloodiest battle ever to take place on English soil, and ended in a decisive Yorkist victory.{{Sfn|Gravett |2003|pp=85–89}}

Estimates of the dead range from 9,000 to 20,000; figures are uncertain, as most of the mass graves were emptied or moved over the centuries, while corpses were generally stripped of clothing or armour before burial. Nevertheless, casualties among the Lancastrian nobility were enormous and explain the enduring bitterness among those who survived. Since 1996, excavations have uncovered over 50 skeletons from the battle; an analysis of their injuries shows the brutality of the contest, including extensive post-mortem mutilations.{{Sfn|Sutherland|Schmidt|2003|pp=15–25}}

Margaret fled to Scotland with Edward of Westminster, while the new king returned to London for his 28 June 1461 [[coronation of the English monarch|coronation]].{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=54–55}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=James |first1=Jeffrey |title=Edward IV: Glorious Son of York |year= 2015 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Ltd. |isbn=978-1-4456-4622-0 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=euWGCgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> Henry VI remained at large for over a year, but was caught and imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. There was little point in killing him while his son remained alive since this would have transferred the Lancastrian claim from a frail captive to one who was young and free.{{Sfn|Ross|1974|p=62}}

===1461 to 1470===
[[File:Rose Noble, Edward IV, from 1464 - Bode-Museum - DSC02744.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Rose [[Noble (English coin)|Noble]] coin of Edward IV, minted in 1464]]

Most of the nobility had either remained loyal to Henry or stayed neutral, forcing Edward to rely heavily on the Nevilles. Consolidating the regime initially took precedence, but [[John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu|John Neville]]'s victory at the 1464 [[Battle of Hexham]] seemed to end the Lancastrian threat.{{Sfn|Ross|1974|p=61}} This exposed internal divisions, particularly over foreign policy, which in this period largely focused on the relationship between England, [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Duchy of Burgundy]], with two of the parties manoeuvring to form an alliance against the third.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=60}} Although Edward preferred Burgundy as a partner, he allowed Warwick to negotiate a treaty with [[Louis XI of France]], which included a suggested marriage between Edward and [[Anne of France]] or [[Bona of Savoy]], respectively daughter and sister-in-law of the French king.{{Sfn|Ross|1974|p=91}}

In October 1464, Warwick was enraged to discover that on 1 May, Edward had secretly married [[Elizabeth Woodville]], a widow with two sons, whose Lancastrian husband, [[John Grey of Groby]], died at the Second Battle of St Albans.{{Sfn|Ross|1974|pp=85–86}} If nothing else, it was a clear demonstration he was not in control of the king, despite suggestions to the contrary.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=114}} Edward's motives have been widely discussed by contemporaries and historians. Although Elizabeth's mother, [[Jacquetta of Luxembourg]], came from the upper nobility, her father, [[Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers|Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers]], was a middle-ranking provincial baron. The [[Privy Council of England|Privy Council]] told Edward with unusual frankness that "she was no wife for a prince such as himself, for she was not the daughter of a duke or earl."{{Sfn|Ross|1974|p=85}}

The marriage was certainly unwise and unusual, although not unheard of; Henry VI's mother, [[Catherine of Valois]], married her chamberlain, [[Owen Tudor]]. By all accounts, Elizabeth possessed considerable charm of person and intellect, while Edward was used to getting what he wanted.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=112–113}} Historians generally accept the marriage was an impulsive decision, but differ on whether it was also a "calculated political move". One view is the low status of the Woodvilles was part of the attraction, since unlike the Nevilles, they were reliant on Edward and thus more likely to remain loyal.{{Sfn|Wilkinson|1964|p=146}} Others argue if this was his purpose, there were far better options available; all agree it had significant political implications that impacted the rest of Edward's reign.{{Sfn|Carpenter|1997|p=170}}

[[File:Marriage Edward IV Elizabeth Woodville Wavrin Anciennes Chroniques d'Angleterre Francais 85 f109.jpeg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The marriage of Edward IV to [[Elizabeth Woodville]], from the illuminated manuscript ''Anciennes Chroniques d'Angleterre'', by [[Jean de Wavrin]]]]
One reason for this was that twelve of the new queen's siblings survived into adulthood, creating a large pool of competitors for offices and estates, as well as in the matrimony market. Resentment built when her sisters made a series of advantageous unions, including that of [[Catherine Woodville, Duchess of Buckingham|Catherine Woodville]] to [[Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham]]; [[Anne Woodville]] to William, heir to [[Henry Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex]]; and Eleanor Woodville with Anthony, heir to [[Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent]].{{Sfn|Ross|1974|p=93}}

In 1467, Edward dismissed his [[Lord Chancellor]], Warwick's brother [[George Neville (bishop)|George Neville, Archbishop of York]]. Warwick responded by building an alliance with Edward's disaffected younger brother and heir, the Duke of Clarence, who held estates adjacent to the Neville heartland in the north. Concerned by this, Edward blocked a proposed marriage between Clarence and Warwick's eldest daughter [[Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence|Isabel]].{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=203–205}} In early July, Clarence defied his brother by travelling to Calais, where he married Isabel in a ceremony conducted by George Neville and overseen by Warwick. The three men issued a 'remonstrance', listing alleged abuses by the Woodvilles and other advisors close to Edward and then returned to London, where they assembled an army to remove these 'evil councillors' and establish good government.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=210–211}}

With Edward still in the north, the royal army was defeated by a Neville force at [[Battle of Edgcote|Edgecote Moor]] on 24 July 1469. After the battle, Edward was held in [[Middleham Castle]]; on 12 August, his father-in-law Richard Woodville and Richard's younger son, [[John Woodville]], were executed at [[Kenilworth]]. It soon became clear there was little support for Warwick or Clarence; Edward was released in September and resumed the throne.{{Sfn|Gillingham|2001|p=160}} Outwardly, the situation remained unchanged, but tensions persisted and Edward did nothing to reduce the Nevilles' sense of vulnerability. The Percys, traditional rivals of the Neville family in the North, fought for Lancaster at Towton; their titles and estates were confiscated and given to Warwick's brother John Neville. In early 1470, Edward reinstated [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]] as [[Earl of Northumberland]]; John was compensated with the title [[Marquess of Montagu]], but this was a significant demotion for a key supporter.{{Sfn|Ross|1974|pp=135–136}}

[[File:The South Gate, Exeter - The Reception of King Edward IV, 1470.jpg|thumb|right|Watercolour by [[George Townsend (artist)|George Townsend]], 1885, of King Edward IV's reception to Exeter in 1470]]
In March 1470, Warwick and Clarence exploited a private feud to start the [[1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion]]; when it was defeated, the two fled to France in May 1470.{{Sfn|Kendall|1970|p=228}} Seeing an opportunity, Louis XI persuaded Warwick to negotiate with his enemy, Margaret of Anjou; she eventually agreed, first making him kneel before her in silence for fifteen minutes.{{Sfn|Ashley|2002|p=170}} With French support, Warwick landed in England on 9 September 1470 and announced his intention to restore Henry.{{Sfn|Kendall|1970|p=236}} By now, the Yorkist regime was deeply unpopular and the Lancastrians rapidly assembled an army of over 30,000; when John Neville switched sides, Edward narrowly escaped capture and was forced to seek refuge in [[Bruges]].{{Sfn|Ross|1974|pp=152–153}}

===Exile and restoration===
[[File:Beheading duke somerset.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Edward IV (left) watching the execution of [[Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset]], at Tewkesbury, 1471]]

Edward took refuge in [[Flanders]], part of the Duchy of Burgundy, accompanied by a few hundred men, including his younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Anthony Woodville and William Hastings.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=243}} The Duchy was ruled by [[Charles the Bold]], husband of his sister Margaret; he provided minimal help, something Edward never forgot.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=256–258}} The [[Readeption of Henry VI|restored Lancastrian regime]] faced the same issue that dominated Henry's previous reign. Mental and physical frailties made him incapable of ruling and resulted in an internal struggle for control, made worse because the coalition that put him back on the throne consisted of bitter enemies. [[Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset]], held Warwick responsible for [[Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset|his father]]'s death in 1455, while he had executed his elder brother in 1464; Warwick and Clarence quickly found themselves isolated by the new regime.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=260–261}}

Backed by wealthy Flemish merchants, in March 1471 Edward landed near [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], close to his estates in Yorkshire. Supporters were reluctant to join him; the important northern city of [[York]] opened its gates only when he claimed to be seeking the return of his dukedom, like [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] seventy years earlier. The first significant contingent to join was a group of 600 men under [[William Parr (died 1483)|William Parr]] and [[James Harrington (Yorkist knight)|James Harrington]].{{Sfn|Horrox|1989|p=41}} Parr fought against the Yorkists at Edgecote in 1469 and his defection confirmed Clarence's decision to switch sides; as they marched south, more recruits came in, including 3,000 at Leicester.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=263}}

Edward entered London unopposed and took Henry prisoner; Warwick was defeated and killed at the [[Battle of Barnet]] on 14 April, while a second Lancastrian army was destroyed at the [[Battle of Tewkesbury]] on 4 May. Sixteen-year-old Edward of Westminster, the heir to the throne, died on the battlefield, with surviving leaders like Somerset executed shortly afterwards. This was followed by Henry's death a few days later; a contemporary chronicle claimed this was due to "melancholy" but it is generally assumed he was killed on Edward's orders.{{Sfn|Wolfe|1981|p=347}}

Although the Lancastrian cause seemed at an end, the regime was destabilised by a quarrel between Clarence and his brother Gloucester. The two were married to Isabel Neville and [[Anne Neville]], respectively, the daughters of the Earl and [[Anne Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick|Countess of Warwick]] and heirs to their mother's considerable inheritance.{{Sfn|Ross|1981|pp=26–27}} Many of the estates held by the brothers had been granted by Edward, who could also remove them, making them dependent on his favour. This was not the case with property acquired through marriage and explains the importance of this dispute.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=306–307}}

===1471 to 1483===
[[File:Edward IV Plantagenet.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Edward IV {{Circa|1520}}, posthumous portrait from original {{Circa|1470}}–1475; it shows signs of the corpulence that affected him in later life]]

The last significant rebellion ended in February 1474 with the surrender of [[John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford]], who survived to command the Lancastrian army at [[Battle of Bosworth Field|Bosworth]] in 1485. Clarence was widely suspected of involvement, a factor in his eventual execution in the Tower on 18 February 1478; claims he was "drowned in a butt of [[Malmsey]] wine" appears to have been a joke by Edward, referring to his favourite drink.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=406}}

In 1475, Edward allied with Burgundy and declared war on France. With Duke Charles busy with the [[Siege of Neuss]], Louis opened negotiations. Soon after Edward landed at Calais, the two signed the [[Treaty of Picquigny]].{{Sfn|Penn|2019 |pp=364–365}} Edward received an immediate payment of 75,000 [[Crown (English coin)|crowns]], plus a yearly pension of 50,000 crowns, thus allowing him to recoup the costs of his army.{{Sfn|Hicks|2011|p=18}} In 1482, Edward backed an attempt to usurp the Scottish throne by [[Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany]], brother of [[James III of Scotland]]. Gloucester invaded Scotland and took the town of [[Edinburgh]], but not [[Edinburgh Castle]], where James was being held prisoner by his nobles. Albany switched sides and without siege equipment, the English army was forced to withdraw, with little to show for an expensive campaign, apart from the capture of [[Berwick Castle]].{{Sfn|Penn|2019|pp=434–435}}

===Illness and death===
Edward's health began to fail, and he became subject to an increasing number of ailments; his physicians attributed this in part to a habitual use of [[emetics]], which allowed him to gorge himself at meals, then return after vomiting to start again.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=431}} He fell fatally ill at Easter 1483, but survived long enough to add codicils to his will, the most important naming his brother as Protector after his death. He died on 9 April 1483 and was buried in [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]. His twelve-year-old son, [[Edward V]], was never crowned, Gloucester becoming King [[Richard III]] in July.{{Sfn|Penn|2019|p=494}}

The cause of Edward's death is uncertain; allegations of poison were common in an era when lack of medical knowledge meant death often had no obvious explanation. Other suggestions include [[pneumonia]] or [[malaria]], although both were well-known and easy to describe. One contemporary attributed it to [[apoplexy]] brought on by excess, which fits with what is known of his physical habits.{{Sfn|Ross|1974|pp=414–415}} Another theory is that Edward died of syphilis.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salmon |first1=Marylynn |chapter=Deciphering Two Opaque Sources on the Death of King Edward IV of England. |title=Medieval Syphilis and Treponemal Disease |pages=23–52 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2z0vvkm |publisher=Arc Humanities Press |year=2022 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv2z0vvkm |jstor=j.ctv2z0vvkm |isbn=978-1-80270-048-0 |access-date=4 August 2023}}</ref>

While the War of the Roses has been documented by numerous historians, Edward as an individual is less well known; 19th century historians like [[William Stubbs]] generally dismissed him as a bloodthirsty nonentity. The most comprehensive modern biography was written by [[Charles Ross (historian)|Charles Ross]] in 1974, who concluded the peace and stability of his later reign was squandered in short-term aggrandisement.{{Sfn|Ross|1974}} He further suggests that Edward "remains the only king in English history since 1066 in active possession of his throne who failed to secure the safe succession of his son. His lack of political foresight is largely to blame for the unhappy aftermath of his early death."{{Sfn|Ross|1974|p=451}}