Editing Desalination (section)

==Technologies==
<noinclude>{{Desalination}}</noinclude>
Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally [[sea water]]) is converted to fresh water.  The most common desalination processes are [[distillation]] and [[reverse osmosis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shammas |first=Nazih K. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/639163996 |title=Water and wastewater engineering : water supply and wastewater removal |date=2011 |publisher=Wiley |others=Lawrence K. Wang |isbn=978-0-470-41192-6 |location=Hoboken, N.J. |oclc=639163996}}</ref>

There are several methods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Curto |first1=Domenico |last2=Franzitta |first2=Vincenzo |last3=Guercio |first3=Andrea |title=A Review of the Water Desalination Technologies |journal=[[Applied Sciences (journal)|Applied Sciences]] |date=2021 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=670 |doi=10.3390/app11020670 |doi-access=free|hdl=10447/479195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Each has advantages and disadvantages but all are useful. The methods can be divided into membrane-based (e.g., [[reverse osmosis]]) and thermal-based (e.g., [[Multi-stage flash distillation|multistage flash distillation]]) methods.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019" /> The traditional process of desalination is [[distillation]] (i.e., boiling and re-[[condensation]] of [[seawater]] to leave salt and impurities behind).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oas.org/usde/publications/unit/oea59e/ch21.htm|title=2.2 Desalination by distillation|website=www.oas.org}}</ref>

There are currently two technologies with a large majority of the world's desalination capacity: [[multi-stage flash distillation]] and [[reverse osmosis]].

=== Distillation ===

====Solar distillation====
[[Solar distillation]] mimics the natural water cycle, in which the sun heats sea water enough for evaporation to occur.<ref name=Khawaji /> After evaporation, the water vapor is condensed onto a cool surface.<ref name=Khawaji /> There are two types of solar desalination. The first type uses photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy to electrical energy to power desalination. The second type converts solar energy to heat, and is known as solar thermal powered desalination.

====Natural evaporation====
Water can evaporate through several other physical effects besides [[solar irradiation]]. These effects have been included in a multidisciplinary desalination methodology in the [[IBTS Greenhouse]]. The IBTS is an industrial desalination (power)plant on one side and a greenhouse operating with the natural water cycle (scaled down 1:10) on the other side. The various processes of evaporation and condensation are hosted in low-tech utilities, partly underground and the architectural shape of the building itself. This integrated biotectural system is most suitable for large scale [[desert greening]] as it has a km<sup>2</sup> footprint for the water distillation and the same for landscape transformation in desert greening, respectively the regeneration of natural fresh water cycles.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

====Vacuum distillation====
In [[vacuum distillation]] atmospheric pressure is reduced, thus lowering the temperature required to evaporate the water. Liquids boil when the [[vapor pressure]] equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Effectively, liquids boil at a lower temperature, when the ambient atmospheric pressure is less than usual atmospheric pressure. Thus, because of the reduced pressure, low-temperature "waste" heat from electrical power generation or industrial processes can be employed.

====Multi-stage flash distillation====
Water is evaporated and separated from sea water through [[multi-stage flash distillation]], which is a series of [[flash evaporation]]s.<ref name=Khawaji>{{cite journal|last1=Khawaji|first1=Akili D.|last2=Kutubkhanah|first2=Ibrahim K.|last3=Wie|first3=Jong-Mihn|title=Advances in seawater desalination technologies|journal=Desalination|volume=221|issue=1–3|pages=47–69|doi=10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.067|date=March 2008|bibcode=2008Desal.221...47K }}</ref> Each subsequent flash process uses energy released from the condensation of the water vapor from the previous step.<ref name=Khawaji />

====Multiple-effect distillation====
[[Multiple-effect distillation]] (MED) works through a series of steps called "effects".<ref name=Khawaji /> Incoming water is sprayed onto pipes which are then heated to generate steam. The steam is then used to heat the next batch of incoming sea water.<ref name=Khawaji />  To increase efficiency, the steam used to heat the sea water can be taken from nearby power plants.<ref name=Khawaji /> Although this method is the most thermodynamically efficient among methods powered by heat,<ref name=WarsingerEntropy>{{cite journal|last1=Warsinger|first1=David M.|last2=Mistry|first2= Karan H.|last3=Nayar|first3=Kishor G.|last4=Chung|first4=Hyung Won|last5=Lienhard V|first5=John H.|title=Entropy Generation of Desalination Powered by Variable Temperature Waste Heat|journal=Entropy|volume=17|issue=12|pages=7530–7566|doi=10.3390/e17117530|date=2015|bibcode=2015Entrp..17.7530W|url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/100423/1/Entropy%20Generation%20of%20Desalination%20Powered%20by%20Variable%20Temperature%20Waste%20Heat%2c%20Warsinger.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> a few limitations exist such as a max temperature and max number of effects.<ref name="Al-Shammiri">{{cite journal|title=Multi-effect distillation plants: state of the art|last2=Safar|first2=M.|date=November 1999|journal=Desalination|volume=126|issue=1–3|pages=45–59|doi=10.1016/S0011-9164(99)00154-X|last1=Al-Shammiri|first1=M.|bibcode=1999Desal.126...45A }}</ref>

====Vapor-compression distillation====
[[Vapor-compression evaporation]] involves using either a mechanical compressor or a jet stream to compress the vapor present above the liquid.<ref name="WarsingerEntropy" />  The compressed vapor is then used to provide the heat needed for the evaporation of the rest of the sea water.<ref name="Khawaji" /> Since this system only requires power, it is more cost effective if kept at a small scale.<ref name="Khawaji" />

==== Membrane distillation ====
[[Membrane distillation]] uses a temperature difference across a membrane to evaporate vapor from a brine solution and condense pure water on the colder side.<ref name="WarsingerFramework">{{cite journal|last1=Warsinger|first1=David M.|last2=Tow|first2=Emily W.|last3=Swaminathan|first3=Jaichander|last4=Lienhard V|first4=John H.|date=2017|title=Theoretical framework for predicting inorganic fouling in membrane distillation and experimental validation with calcium sulfate|url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/107916/1/Theoretical%20framework%20for%20predicting%20inorganic%20fouling%20in%20membrane%20distillation%20and%20experimental%20validation%20with%20calcium%20sulfate-%20warsinger%20preprint.pdf|journal=Journal of Membrane Science|volume=528|pages=381–390|doi=10.1016/j.memsci.2017.01.031|doi-access=free}}</ref> The design of the membrane can have a significant effect on efficiency and durability. A study found that a membrane created via co-axial [[electrospinning]] of [[Polyvinylidene fluoride|PVDF]]-[[Hexafluoropropylene|HFP]] and [[Aerogel|silica aerogel]] was able to filter 99.99% of salt after continuous 30-day usage.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Irving|first=Michael|date=July 6, 2021|title=Mixed up membrane desalinates water with 99.99 percent efficiency|url=https://newatlas.com/materials/desalination-membrane-coaxial-electrospinning-nanofibers/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-07|website=New Atlas|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706034413/https://newatlas.com/materials/desalination-membrane-coaxial-electrospinning-nanofibers/ |archive-date=July 6, 2021 }}</ref>

=== Osmosis ===

====Reverse osmosis====
[[File:PlantaSchemaNotional.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Schematic representation of a typical desalination plant using [[reverse osmosis]]. Hybrid desalination plants using [[#Freeze–thaw|liquid nitrogen freeze thaw]] in conjunction with reverse osmosis have been found to improve efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Najim |first1=Abdul |title=A review of advances in freeze desalination and future prospects |journal=npj Clean Water |publisher=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41545-022-00158-1 |date=19 April 2022|volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |s2cid=248231737 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022npjCW...5...15N }}</ref> ]]
The leading process for desalination in terms of installed capacity and yearly growth is [[reverse osmosis]] (RO).<ref>{{cite journal|title=State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination|year=2007|last1=Fritzmann|first1=C|last2=Lowenberg|first2=J|last3=Wintgens|first3=T|last4=Melin|first4=T|journal=Desalination|volume=216|issue=1–3|pages=1–76|doi=10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.009|bibcode=2007Desal.216....1F }}</ref> The RO membrane processes use semipermeable membranes and applied  pressure (on the membrane feed side) to preferentially induce water permeation through the membrane while rejecting salts. [[Reverse osmosis plant]] membrane systems typically use less energy than thermal desalination processes.<ref name=WarsingerEntropy /> Energy cost in desalination processes varies considerably depending on water salinity, plant size and process type. At present the cost of seawater desalination, for example, is higher than traditional water sources, but it is expected that costs will continue to decrease with technology improvements that include, but are not limited to, improved efficiency,<ref name=WarsingerBatch>{{cite journal|last1=Warsinger|first1=David M.|last2=Tow|first2= Emily W.|last3=Nayar|first3=Kishor G.|last4=Maswadeh|first4=Laith A.|last5=Lienhard V|first5=John H.|title=Energy efficiency of batch and semi-batch (CCRO) reverse osmosis desalination|journal=Water Research|volume=106|pages=272–282|doi=10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.029|pmid=27728821|date=2016|bibcode=2016WatRe.106..272W |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/105441/4/CCRO%20with%20tank%20journal%20paper%20v116%20Preprint.pdf|hdl=1721.1/105441|doi-access=free}}</ref> reduction in plant footprint, improvements to plant operation and optimization, more effective feed pretreatment, and lower cost energy sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Salty solutions |journal = Physics Today|date = 2015-06-01|issn = 0031-9228|pages = 66–67|volume = 68|issue = 6|doi = 10.1063/PT.3.2828|first = Gregory P.|last = Thiel|bibcode = 2015PhT....68f..66T |doi-access = free}}</ref>

Reverse osmosis uses a thin-film composite membrane, which comprises an ultra-thin, aromatic polyamide thin-film. This polyamide film gives the membrane its transport properties, whereas the remainder of the thin-film composite membrane provides mechanical support. The polyamide film is a dense, void-free polymer with a high surface area, allowing for its high water permeability.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1073/pnas.1804708115|pmid=30104388|title=Electron tomography reveals details of the internal microstructure of desalination membranes|year=2018|last1=Culp|first1=T.E.|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=115|issue=35|pages=8694–8699|pmc=6126755|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.8694C|doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2021 study found that the water permeability is primarily governed by the internal nanoscale mass distribution of the polyamide active layer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Culp|first1=Tyler E.|last2=Khara|first2=Biswajit|last3=Brickey|first3=Kaitlyn P.|last4=Geitner|first4=Michael|last5=Zimudzi|first5=Tawanda J.|last6=Wilbur|first6=Jeffrey D.|last7=Jons|first7=Steven D.|last8=Roy|first8=Abhishek|last9=Paul|first9=Mou|last10=Ganapathysubramanian|first10=Baskar|last11=Zydney|first11=Andrew L.|date=2021-01-01|title=Nanoscale control of internal inhomogeneity enhances water transport in desalination membranes|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb8518|journal=Science|language=en|volume=371|issue=6524|pages=72–75|doi=10.1126/science.abb8518|issn=0036-8075|pmid=33384374|bibcode=2021Sci...371...72C|s2cid=229935140}}</ref>

The reverse osmosis process requires maintenance. Various factors interfere with efficiency: ionic contamination (calcium, magnesium etc.); [[dissolved organic carbon]] (DOC); bacteria; viruses; [[colloid]]s and insoluble particulates; [[biofouling]] and [[Fouling|scaling]]. In extreme cases, the RO membranes are destroyed. To mitigate damage, various pretreatment stages are introduced.  Anti-scaling inhibitors include acids and other agents such as the organic polymers [[polyacrylamide]] and [[polymaleic acid]], [[phosphonate]]s and [[polyphosphate]]s. Inhibitors for fouling are [[biocide]]s (as oxidants against bacteria and viruses), such as chlorine, ozone, sodium or calcium hypochlorite. At regular intervals, depending on the membrane contamination; fluctuating seawater conditions; or when prompted by monitoring processes, the membranes need to be cleaned, known as emergency or shock-flushing. Flushing is done with inhibitors in a fresh water solution and the system must go offline. This procedure is environmentally risky, since contaminated water is diverted into the ocean without treatment. Sensitive [[marine habitats]] can be irreversibly damaged.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Membranverfahren – Grundlagen der Modul und Anlagenauslegung|last=Rautenbach|first=Melin|publisher=Springer Verlag Berlin|year=2007|isbn=978-3540000716|location=Germany}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Seawater Desalination – Impacts of Brine and Chemical Discharge on the Marine Environment|publisher=Sabine Lattemann, Thomas Höppner|isbn=978-0866890625|date=2003-01-01}}</ref>

Off-grid [[solar-powered desalination unit]]s use solar energy to fill a buffer tank on a hill with seawater.<ref>{{cite web |title=Access to sustainable water by unlimited resources {{!}} Climate innovation window |url=https://climateinnovationwindow.eu/innovations/access-sustainable-water-unlimited-resources |website=climateinnovationwindow.eu |access-date=2019-02-22 |archive-date=2023-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804105115/https://climateinnovationwindow.eu/innovations/access-sustainable-water-unlimited-resources |url-status=dead }}</ref>  The reverse osmosis process receives its pressurized seawater feed in non-sunlight hours by gravity, resulting in sustainable drinking water production without the need for fossil fuels, an electricity grid or batteries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Solving fresh water scarcity, using only the sea, sun, earth & wind |url=http://www.glispa.org/glispa-bright-spots/27-emerging-bright-spots/206-elemental |website=www.glispa.org|date=7 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=From Plentiful Seawater to Precious Drinking Water |url=https://sidsgbn.org/2018/03/20/tackling-water-scarcity-on-islands/ |website=SIDS Global Business Network|date=March 20, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=HH Sheikh Maktoum bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum honours 10 winners from 8 countries at Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Global Water Award |url=http://www.suqia.ae/en/media-center/news/112-2017-04-27 |website=Suqia |language=en-gb}}</ref> Nano-tubes are also used for the same function (i.e., Reverse Osmosis).

Deep sea reverse osmosis (DSRO) installs equipment on the [[seabed]] to force water through RO membranes using the ocean's naturally occurring water pressure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Chant |first=Tim De |date=2024-12-10 |title=Exclusive: A new wave of desalination startups argues that deeper is better |url=https://techcrunch.com/2024/12/10/a-new-wave-of-desalination-startups-argues-that-deeper-is-better/ |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> A 2021 study suggested DSRO could improve energy efficiency compared to standard RO by up to 50%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fasano |first=Matteo |last2=Morciano |first2=Matteo |last3=Bergamasco |first3=Luca |last4=Chiavazzo |first4=Eliodoro |last5=Zampato |first5=Massimo |last6=Carminati |first6=Stefano |last7=Asinari |first7=Pietro |date=2021-12-15 |title=Deep-sea reverse osmosis desalination for energy efficient low salinity enhanced oil recovery |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261921010242 |journal=Applied Energy |volume=304 |pages=117661 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117661 |issn=0306-2619|hdl=11696/75400 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The concept of DSRO has long been known, but has only recently become feasible due to technological advances from the deep sea oil and gas industry, drawing early-stage investments in DSRO startups.<ref name=":0" />

==== Forward osmosis ====
[[Forward osmosis]] uses a semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dissolved solutes. The driving force for this separation is an osmotic pressure gradient, such as a "draw" solution of high concentration.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019" />

=== Freeze–thaw ===
Freeze–thaw desalination (or freezing desalination) uses freezing to remove fresh water from salt water. Salt water is sprayed during freezing conditions into a pad where an ice-pile builds up. When seasonal conditions warm, naturally desalinated melt water is recovered. This technique relies on extended periods of natural sub-freezing conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usbr.gov/research/dwpr/reportpdfs/report071.pdf |title=Demonstration of the Natural Freeze-Thaw Process for the Desalination of Water From The Devils Lake Chain to Provide Water for the City of Devils Lake |first1=John E. |last1=Boysen |first2=Bradley G. |last2=Stevens |date=August 2002}}</ref>

A different freeze–thaw method, not weather dependent and invented by [[Alexander Zarchin]], freezes seawater in a vacuum. Under vacuum conditions the ice, desalinated, is melted and diverted for collection and the salt is collected.

===Electrodialysis===
[[Electrodialysis]] uses electric potential to move the salts through pairs of charged membranes, which trap salt in alternating channels.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Van der Bruggen|first1=Bart|last2=Vandecasteele|first2=Carlo|title=Distillation vs. membrane filtration: overview of process evolutions in seawater desalination|journal=Desalination|volume=143|issue=3|pages=207–218|doi=10.1016/S0011-9164(02)00259-X|date=June 2002|bibcode=2002Desal.143..207V }}</ref> Several variances of electrodialysis exist such as conventional [[electrodialysis]], [[electrodialysis reversal]].<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019" />

Electrodialysis can simultaneously remove salt and [[carbonic acid]] from seawater.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustafa |first1=Jawad |last2=Mourad |first2=Aya A. -H. I. |last3=Al-Marzouqi |first3=Ali H. |last4=El-Naas |first4=Muftah H. |date=2020-06-01 |title=Simultaneous treatment of reject brine and capture of carbon dioxide: A comprehensive review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916419316042 |journal=Desalination |language=en |volume=483 |pages=114386 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2020.114386 |bibcode=2020Desal.48314386M |s2cid=216273247 |issn=0011-9164}}</ref> Preliminary estimates suggest that the cost of such [[carbon dioxide removal|carbon removal]] can be paid for in large part if not entirely from the sale of the desalinated water produced as a byproduct.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustafa |first1=Jawad |last2=Al-Marzouqi |first2=Ali H. |last3=Ghasem |first3=Nayef |last4=El-Naas |first4=Muftah H. |last5=Van der Bruggen |first5=Bart |date=February 2023 |title=Electrodialysis process for carbon dioxide capture coupled with salinity reduction: A statistical and quantitative investigation |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0011916422007184 |journal=Desalination |language=en |volume=548 |pages=116263 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2022.116263|bibcode=2023Desal.54816263M |s2cid=254341024 }}</ref>

=== Microbial desalination ===

{{Main|Microbial desalination cell}}

Microbial desalination cells are biological [[electrochemical]] systems that implements the use of electro-active bacteria to power desalination of water [[in situ]], resourcing the natural anode and cathode gradient of the electro-active bacteria and thus creating an internal [[supercapacitor]].<ref name="EbrahimiNajafpourYousefiKebria2019" />

=== Wave-powered desalination ===
Wave powered desalination systems generally convert mechanical wave motion directly to hydraulic power for reverse osmosis.<ref name="Hicks Mitcheson Pleass Salevan 1989 pp. 81–94">{{cite journal | last1=Hicks | first1=Douglas C. | last2=Mitcheson | first2=George R. | last3=Pleass | first3=Charles M. | last4=Salevan | first4=James F. | title=Delbouy: Ocean wave-powered seawater reverse osmosis desalination systems | journal=Desalination | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=73 | year=1989 | issn=0011-9164 | doi=10.1016/0011-9164(89)87006-7 | pages=81–94| bibcode=1989Desal..73...81H }}</ref> Such systems aim to maximize efficiency and reduce costs by avoiding conversion to electricity, minimizing excess pressurization above the osmotic pressure, and  innovating on hydraulic and wave power components.<ref name="Brodersen Bywater Lanter Schennum 2022 p=115393">{{cite journal | last1=Brodersen | first1=Katie M. | last2=Bywater | first2=Emily A. | last3=Lanter | first3=Alec M. | last4=Schennum | first4=Hayden H. | last5=Furia | first5=Kumansh N. | last6=Sheth | first6=Maulee K. | last7=Kiefer | first7=Nathaniel S. | last8=Cafferty | first8=Brittany K. | last9=Rao | first9=Akshay K. | last10=Garcia | first10=Jose M. | last11=Warsinger | first11=David M. | title=Direct-drive ocean wave-powered batch reverse osmosis | journal=Desalination | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=523 | year=2022 | issn=0011-9164 | doi=10.1016/j.desal.2021.115393 | page=115393| arxiv=2107.07137 | bibcode=2022Desal.52315393B | s2cid=235898906 }}</ref>
One such approach is desalinating using submerged buoys, a [[wave power]] approach done by [[CETO]]<ref>{{cite web|date=February 2015|title=Perth Wave Energy Project|url=http://arena.gov.au/project/perth-wave-energy-project/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201220304/http://arena.gov.au/project/perth-wave-energy-project/|archive-date=February 1, 2016|access-date=26 January 2016|website=[[Australian Renewable Energy Agency]]|publisher=[[Government of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]]|quote=This project is the world's first commercial-scale wave energy array that is connected to the grid and has the ability to produce desalinated water.}}</ref> and Oneka.<ref name="v390">{{cite web | title=Oneka's Floating Desalination Buoys Set to Revolutionise Water Access | website=H2O Global News | date=2023-12-05 | url=https://h2oglobalnews.com/onekas-floating-desalination-buoys-set-to-revolutionise-water-access/ | access-date=2025-01-19}}</ref> Wave-powered desalination plants began operating by CETO on [[Garden Island (Western Australia)|Garden Island]] in Western Australia in 2013<ref>[http://www.waterworld.com/articles/wwi/print/volume-28/issue-6/regional-spotlight-asia-pacific/wave-powered-desalination-riding-high-in-australia.html Wave-powered Desalination Riding High in Australia] – WaterWorld</ref> and in [[Perth]] in 2015,<ref>{{cite web|title=World's first wave-powered desalination plant now operational in Perth|url=https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/portal/news/worlds-first-wave-powered-desalination-plant-now-operational-perth|website=www.engineersaustralia.org.au}}</ref> and Oneka has installations in Chile, Florida, California, and the Caribbean.<ref name="v390"/>

=== Wind-powered desalination ===
Wind energy can also be coupled to desalination. Similar to wave power, a direct conversion of mechanical energy to hydraulic power can reduce components and losses in powering reverse osmosis.<ref name="f476">{{cite journal | last=Esquivel-Puentes | first=Helber Antonio | last2=Vacca | first2=Andrea | last3=Chamorro | first3=Leonardo P. | last4=Garcia-Bravo | first4=Jose | last5=Warsinger | first5=David M. | last6=Castillo | first6=Luciano | title=Simultaneous electricity generation and low-energy-intensive water desalination using a hydraulic wind turbine | journal=Desalination | volume=601 | date=2025 | doi=10.1016/j.desal.2025.118526 | page=118526}}</ref> Wind power has also been considered for coupling with thermal desalination technologies.<ref name="n968">{{cite journal | last=Abdelkareem | first=Mohammad Ali | last2=Al Radi | first2=Muaz | last3=Mahmoud | first3=Montaser | last4=Sayed | first4=Enas Taha | last5=Salameh | first5=Tareq | last6=Alqadi | first6=Rashid | last7=Kais | first7=El-Cheikh Amer | last8=Olabi | first8=A.G. | title=Recent progress in wind energy-powered desalination | journal=Thermal Science and Engineering Progress | volume=47 | date=2024 | doi=10.1016/j.tsep.2023.102286 | page=102286}}</ref>

=== Desalination by thermophoresis ===
In April 2024, researchers from the Australian National University published experimental results of a novel technique for desalination. This technique, thermodiffusive desalination, passes saline water through a channel that is exposed to a temperature gradient. Due to [[thermophoresis]], species migrate under this temperature gradient, orthogonal to the fluid flow. Researchers then separated the water into fractions. After multiple passes through the channel, the researchers were able to achieve a NaCl concentration drop of 25000 ppm with a recovery rate of 10% of the original water volume.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=XU |first1=Shuqi |last2=Hutchinson |first2=Alice |last3=Taheri |first3=Mahdiar |last4=Corry |first4=Ben |last5=Torres |first5=Juan |date=2024-04-08 |title=Thermodiffusive desalination |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-47313-5 |journal=Nature Communications |language=en | volume=15 |page=2996 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-47313-5|pmc=10999432 }}</ref>