Editing Cyril of Alexandria (section)

==Controversies==
=== Dispute with the Prefect ===
[[Orestes (prefect)|Orestes]], ''[[Praefectus augustalis]]'' of the [[Byzantine Diocese of Egypt|Diocese of Egypt]], steadfastly resisted Cyril's ecclesiastical encroachment upon secular prerogatives.{{sfnp|Wessel|2004|p=34}}

Tension between the parties increased when in 415, Orestes published an edict that outlined new regulations regarding mime shows and dancing exhibitions in the city, which attracted large crowds and were commonly prone to civil disorder of varying degrees. Crowds gathered to read the edict shortly after it was posted in the city's theater. Cyril sent the ''grammaticus'' Hierax to discover the content of the edict. The edict angered Christians as well as Jews. At one such gathering, Hierax read the edict and applauded the new regulations, prompting a disturbance. Many people felt that Hierax was attempting to incite the crowd—particularly the Jews—into sedition.<ref>John of Nikiu, 84.92.</ref> Orestes had Hierax tortured in public in a theatre. This order had two aims: one to quell the riot, the other to mark Orestes' authority over Cyril.<ref>Socrates Scholasticus, vii.13.6-9</ref>{{sfnp|Wessel|2004|p=34}}

[[Socrates of Constantinople|Socrates Scholasticus]] recounts that upon hearing of Hierax's severe and public punishment, Cyril threatened to retaliate against the Jews of Alexandria with "the utmost severities" if the harassment of Christians did not cease immediately. In response to Cyril's threat, the Jews of Alexandria grew even more furious, eventually resorting to violence against the Christians. They plotted to flush the Christians out at night by running through the streets claiming that the Church of Alexander was on fire. When Christians responded to what they were led to believe was the burning down of their church, "the Jews immediately fell upon and slew them" by using rings to recognize one another in the dark and killing everyone else in sight. When the morning came, Cyril, along with many of his followers, took to the city's synagogues in search of the perpetrators of the massacre.<ref name=Scholasticus>Socrates Scholasticus, ''Ecclesiastical History'', born after 380 AD, died after 439 AD.</ref>

According to Socrates, after Cyril rounded up all the Jews in Alexandria he ordered them to be stripped of all possessions, banished them from Alexandria, and allowed their goods to be pillaged by the remaining citizens of Alexandria. Scholasticus alleges that all the Jews of Alexandria were banished, while [[John of Nikiû]] says it was only those involved in the ambush and massacre. Susan Wessel says that, while it is not clear whether Scholasticus was a Novationist (whose churches Cyril had closed), he was apparently sympathetic towards them, and repeatedly accuses Cyril of abusing his episcopal power by infringing on the rights and duties of the secular authorities. Wessel says, however, "...Socrates probably does not provide accurate and unambiguous information about Cyril's relationship to imperial authority".{{sfnp|Wessel|2004|p=22}}

Nonetheless, with Cyril's banishment of the Jews, however many, "Orestes [...] was filled with great indignation at these transactions, and was excessively grieved that a city of such magnitude should have been suddenly bereft of so large a portion of its population."<ref name=Scholasticus /> Because of this, the feud between Cyril and Orestes intensified, and both men wrote to the emperor regarding the situation. Eventually, Cyril attempted to reach out to Orestes through several peace overtures, including attempted mediation and, when that failed, showed him the Gospels, which he interpreted to indicate that the religious authority of Cyril would require Orestes' acquiescence in the bishop's policy.{{sfnp|Wessel|2004|p=35}} Nevertheless, Orestes remained unmoved by such gestures.

This refusal almost cost Orestes his life. [[Wadi El Natrun|Nitrian monks]] came from the desert and instigated a riot against Orestes among the population of Alexandria. These monks had resorted to violence 15 years before, during a controversy between Theophilus (Cyril's uncle) and the "[[Tall Brothers]]"; the monks assaulted Orestes and accused him of being a pagan. Orestes rejected the accusations, showing that he had been baptised by the Archbishop of Constantinople. A monk named [[Ammonius (Alexandrian monk)|Ammonius]] threw a stone hitting Orestes in the head. The prefect had Ammonius tortured to death, whereupon the Patriarch allegedly honored him as a martyr. However, at least according to Scholasticus, the Christian community displayed a general lack of enthusiasm for Ammonius's case for martyrdom. The prefect then wrote to the emperor [[Theodosius II]], as did Cyril.<ref name="ss7_14">Socrates Scholasticus, vii.14.</ref>{{sfnp|Wessel|2004|pp=35—36}}

=== Murder of Hypatia ===
{{Main|Hypatia}}
The Prefect [[Orestes (prefect)|Orestes]] enjoyed the political backing of [[Hypatia]], an astronomer, philosopher and mathematician who had considerable [[moral authority]] in the city of Alexandria, and who had extensive influence. Indeed, many students from wealthy and influential families came to Alexandria purposely to study privately with [[Hypatia]], and many of these later attained high posts in government and the Church. Several Christians thought that Hypatia's influence had caused Orestes to reject all conciliatory offerings by Cyril. Modern historians think that Orestes had cultivated his relationship with Hypatia to strengthen a bond with the pagan community of Alexandria, as he had done with the Jewish one, in order to better manage the tumultuous political life of the Egyptian capital.<ref>Christopher Haas, ''Alexandria in Late Antiquity: Topography and Social Conflict'', JHU Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0-8018-8541-8}}, p. 312.</ref>

According to [[Socrates Scholasticus]] during the Christian season of [[Lent]] in March 415, a mob of Christians under the leadership of a [[Reader (liturgy)|lector]] named Peter, raided Hypatia's carriage as she was travelling home.{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|pages=114–115}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=313}} They dragged her into a building known as the ''[[Caesareum of Alexandria|Kaisarion]]'', a former pagan temple and center of the [[Imperial cult of ancient Rome|Roman imperial cult]] in Alexandria that had been converted into a Christian church.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=198}}{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=313}} There, the mob stripped Hypatia naked and murdered her using ''[[Ostracon|ostraka]]'',{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Dzielska|1995|page=93}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|pages=115–116}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=198–199}} which can either be translated as "[[roof tiles]]" or "[[Oyster|oyster shells]]".{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}<ref name="ss7_15">Socrate Scolastico, vii.15.</ref> Later historian [[John of Nikiû]] also tells a similar story.<ref>Giovanni di Nikiu, 84.88-100.</ref> Even later historian [[Byzantinist]] Fr. [[Adrian Fortescue]], says that the mob of Christian [[Parabalani]]es and Peter, cruelly tore her to pieces on the ''steps'' of a church. Damascius adds that they also cut out her eyeballs.{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=116}} They tore her body into pieces and dragged her limbs through the town to a place called Cinarion, where they set them on fire.{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=116}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|pages=198–199}} According to Watts, this was in line with the traditional manner in which Alexandrians carried the bodies of the "vilest criminals" outside the city limits to cremate them as a way of symbolically purifying the city.{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=116}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=199}}

=== Cyril's involvement===
Although Socrates Scholasticus never explicitly identifies Hypatia's murderers, they are commonly assumed to have been members of the ''[[parabalani]]''.{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=235–236, 314}} Christopher Haas disputes this identification, arguing that the murderers were more likely "a crowd of Alexandrian laymen".{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=314}} Socrates Scholasticus unequivocally condemns the actions of the mob, declaring, "Surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort."{{sfn|Novak|2010|page=240}}{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=199}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=117}}

Neoplatonist historian [[Damascius]] ({{circa}}&nbsp;458 – {{circa}}&nbsp;538) was "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death", and attributed responsibility for her murder to Bishop Cyril and his Christian followers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/issues/v06n1/4whitfield.pdf |title=Whitfield, Bryan J., "The Beauty of Reasoning: A Reexamination of Hypatia and Alexandria", ''The Mathematics Educator'', vol. 6, issue 1, p. 14, University of Georgia, Summer 1995 |access-date=14 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902110939/http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/Issues/v06n1/4whitfield.pdf |archive-date=2 September 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Damascius's account of the Christian murder of Hypatia is the sole historical source naming Bishop Cyril.{{sfnp|Dzielska|1995|p=18}} Some modern studies, as well as the 2009 [[Hypatia]] [[biopic]] ''[[Agora (film)|Agora]]'' represent Hypatia as falling casualty to a conflict between two Christian factions, one peaceful and moderate and led by Orestes, with the support of Hypatia, and [[fundamentalist]] faction enforced by [[Parabalani]] and led by Patriarch Cyril.{{sfnp|Dzielska|1995|pp=xi, 157 }} According to lexicographer [[William Smith (lexicographer)|William Smith]], "She was accused of too much familiarity with Orestes, prefect of Alexandria, and the charge spread among the clergy, who took up the notion that she interrupted the friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, Cyril."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1645.html |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, page 537 (V. 2) |access-date=8 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911232203/http://ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1645.html |archive-date=11 September 2011 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Scholasticus, alleges that Hypatia fell "victim to the political jealousy which at the time prevailed" and that news of Hypatia's murder, "brought no small disgrace", not only to Patriarch Cyril but to the whole Christian Church in Alexandria, "for murder and slaughter and all such things are altogether opposed to the Christian religion."{{sfnp|Fortescue|2007|p=165}}

After the murder, a deputation of citizens went to Constantinople to petition the Emperor for an investigation so as to prevent such horrors in the future and to put down the disorderly Parabalani, however they urged for the Patriarch to be allowed to remain in the city (Orestes wanted him banished). One could deduce from this that there were some who didn't think Cyril responsible for this or that even his own followers thought he went too far. However, according to [[Damascius]], Cyril himself allegedly only managed to escape even more serious punishment by bribing one of Theodosius's officials.{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=117}} Indeed, the investigation resulted in the emperors [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] and Theodosius II issuing an edict in autumn of 416, which attempted to remove the ''parabalani'' from Cyril's power and instead place them under the authority of Orestes.{{sfn|Watts|2008|page=200}}{{sfn|Watts|2017|page=117}}{{sfn|Dzielska|1995|pages=95–96}}{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=436}} The edict restricted the parabalani from attending "any public spectacle whatever" or entering "the meeting place of a municipal council or a courtroom."{{sfn|Haas|1997|pages=67, 436}} It also severely restricted their recruitment by limiting the total number of parabalani to no more than five hundred.{{sfn|Haas|1997|page=436}}

=== Conflict with Nestorius ===
Another major conflict was between the [[Alexandrian school|Alexandrian]] and [[Antiochian school|Antiochian]] schools of ecclesiastical reflection, piety, and discourse. This long running conflict widened with the [[First Council of Constantinople#Dispute concerning the third canon|third canon of the First Council of Constantinople]] which granted the see of Constantinople primacy over the older sees of Alexandria and Antioch. Thus, the struggle between the sees of Alexandria and Antioch now included Constantinople. The conflict came to a head in 428 after [[Nestorius]], who originated in Antioch, was made Archbishop of Constantinople.<ref>Leo Donald Davis, ''The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology'', Collegeville (Min.): The Liturgical Press, 1983, pp. 136–148. {{ISBN|0-8146-5616-1}}</ref>

Cyril gained an opportunity to restore Alexandria's pre-eminence over both Antioch and Constantinople when an Antiochine priest who was in Constantinople at Nestorius' behest began to preach against calling [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]] the "Mother of God" (''[[Theotokos]]''). As the term "Mother of God" had long been attached to Mary, the laity in Constantinople complained against the priest. Rather than repudiating the priest, Nestorius intervened on his behalf. Nestorius argued that Mary was neither a "Mother of Man" nor "[[Theotokos|Mother of God]]" as these referred to [[Christology#Person of Christ|Christ's two natures]]; rather, Mary was the "Mother of Christ" (Greek: ''[[Christotokos]]''). Christ, according to Nestorius, was the conjunction of the Godhead with his "temple" (which Nestorius was fond of calling his human nature). The controversy seemed to be centered on the issue of the suffering of Christ. Cyril maintained that the Son of God or the divine Word, truly suffered "in the flesh."<ref>Thomas Gerard Weinandy, Daniel A. Keating, ''The theology of St. Cyril of Alexandria: a critical appreciation''; New York: T&T Clark Ltd, 2003, p. 49.</ref> However, Nestorius claimed that the Son of God was altogether incapable of suffering, even within his union with the flesh.<ref>Nestorius, Second Epistle to Cyril {{cite web|url=http://www.monachos.net/content/patristics/patristictexts/34-patrtexts/189-nestorius-to-cyril2 |title=Monachos.net – Nestorius of Constantinople, Second epistle to Cyril of Alexandria |access-date=2010-06-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607065600/https://www.monachos.net/content/patristics/patristictexts/34-patrtexts/189-nestorius-to-cyril2 |archive-date=7 June 2011}}</ref> Eusebius of Dorylaeum went so far as to accuse Nestorius of [[adoptionism]]. By this time, news of the controversy in the capital had reached Alexandria. At Easter 429 A.D., Cyril wrote a letter to the Egyptian monks warning them of Nestorius's views. A copy of this letter reached Constantinople where Nestorius preached a sermon against it. This began a series of letters between Cyril and Nestorius which gradually became more strident in tone. Finally, Emperor [[Theodosius II]] convoked the [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] (in 431) to solve the dispute. Cyril selected Ephesus<ref name="st-takla.org"/> as the venue since it supported the veneration of Mary. The council was convoked before Nestorius's supporters from Antioch and Syria had arrived and thus Nestorius refused to attend when summoned. Predictably, the Council ordered the deposition and exile of Nestorius for heresy.

However, when [[John I of Antioch|John of Antioch]] and the other pro-Nestorius bishops finally reached Ephesus, they assembled their own Council, condemned Cyril for heresy, deposed him from his see, and labelled him as a "monster, born and educated for the destruction of the church".<ref name="ReferenceA">Edward Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', 47.</ref> Theodosius, by now old enough to hold power by himself, annulled the verdict of the Council and arrested Cyril, but Cyril eventually escaped. Having fled to Egypt, Cyril bribed Theodosius's courtiers, and sent a mob led by [[Dalmatius of Constantinople|Dalmatius]], a [[hermit]], to besiege Theodosius's palace, and shout abuse; the emperor eventually gave in, sending Nestorius into minor exile (Upper Egypt).<ref name="ReferenceA" />
Cyril died about 444, but the controversies were to continue for decades, from the [[Second Council of Ephesus|"Robber Synod" of Ephesus]] (449) to the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]] (451) and beyond.