Editing Cleveland (section)

=== Growth and expansion ===
The Civil War vaulted Cleveland into the first rank of American manufacturing cities and fueled unprecedented growth.{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/69 69]}} Its prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes played an important role in its development as an industrial and commercial center. In 1870, [[John D. Rockefeller]] founded [[Standard Oil]] in Cleveland,{{sfn|Rose|1990|p=937}} and in 1885, he moved its headquarters to New York City, which had become a center of finance and business.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Experience: Rockefellers Timeline |publisher=PBS |quote=1885: Standard Oil moves into new headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York. |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/rockefellers-timeline/ |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

[[File:Cleveland 1877.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Bird's-eye view]] of Cleveland in 1877]]
Cleveland's economic growth and industrial jobs attracted large waves of immigrants from [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and Eastern Europe as well as [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]].<ref name="immigration-migration" /> Urban growth was accompanied by significant strikes and labor unrest, as workers demanded [[Labor rights|better wages and working conditions]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|pp=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/87 87–89]}} Between 1881 and 1886, 70 to 80% of strikes were successful in improving labor conditions in Cleveland.<ref name="labor">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Harrison |first=Dennis I. |title=Labor |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/l/labor |access-date=January 29, 2021 |date=January 29, 2021 }}</ref> The [[Streetcar strikes in the United States|Cleveland Streetcar Strike of 1899]] was one of the more violent instances of labor strife in the city during this period.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Streetcar Strike of 1899 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/streetcar-strike-1899 |access-date=July 3, 2021 |date=May 22, 2018 }}</ref>

By 1910, Cleveland had become known as the "Sixth City" due to its status at the time as the sixth-largest U.S. city.<ref name="nicknames">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Nicknames and Slogans |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=February 27, 2023 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-nicknames-and-slogans |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> Its automotive companies included [[Peerless Motor Company|Peerless]], [[Chandler Motor Car|Chandler]], and [[Winton Motor Carriage Company|Winton]], maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturing industries in Cleveland included [[steam car]]s produced by [[White Motor Company|White]] and [[electric car]]s produced by [[Baker Motor Vehicle|Baker]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/116 116]}} The city counted major [[Progressive Era]] politicians among its leaders, most prominently the [[Populism|populist]] Mayor [[Tom L. Johnson]], who was responsible for the development of the [[The Mall (Cleveland)|Cleveland Mall Plan]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Johnson, Tom L |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/j/johnson-tom-l |date=September 19, 2021 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> The era of the [[City Beautiful movement]] in Cleveland architecture saw wealthy patrons support the establishment of the city's major cultural institutions. The most prominent among them were the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]], which opened in 1916,{{sfn|Turner|1991|p=[https://archive.org/details/object-lessons/page/9 9]}} and the [[Cleveland Orchestra]], established in 1918.{{sfn|Rosenberg|2000|pp=43–44}}

[[File:Inviting Immigrants to Cleveland Poster (6279784636).jpg|thumb|upright|1917 multilingual poster in English, Italian, [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and [[Yiddish]], advertising English classes for immigrants in Cleveland]]
In addition to the large immigrant population, African American migrants from the rural [[Southern United States|South]] arrived in Cleveland (among other Northeastern and Midwestern cities) as part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] for jobs, constitutional rights, and relief from [[Jim Crow laws|racial discrimination]].<ref name="african-americans">{{cite encyclopedia |title=African Americans |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/african-americans |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=July 15, 2019 }}</ref> By 1920, the year in which the [[Cleveland Guardians|Cleveland Indians]] won their [[1920 World Series|first World Series championship]], Cleveland had grown into a densely-populated metropolis of 796,841, making it the fifth-largest city in the nation,<ref name="largest-US-cities" /> with a foreign-born population of 30%.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Salling |first1=Mark |last2=Cyran |first2=Ellen |title=Foreign-Born Population in Selected Ohio Cities, 1870 to 2000: A Brief Descriptive Report |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1357&context=urban_facpub |page=9 |date=January 1, 2006 |access-date=July 2, 2019 }}</ref>

At this time, Cleveland saw the rise of radical labor movements, most prominently the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW), in response to the conditions of the largely immigrant and migrant workers. In 1919, the city attracted national attention amid the [[First Red Scare]] for the [[May Day riots of 1919|Cleveland May Day Riots]], in which local [[socialism|socialist]] and IWW demonstrators clashed with anti-socialists.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=May Day Riots |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/may-day-riots |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 19, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=May Day Riot |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/28 |access-date=July 22, 2019 }}</ref> The riots occurred during the broader [[US Strike wave of 1919|strike wave]] that swept the U.S. that year.{{sfn|Brecher|2020|p=[https://archive.org/details/strike0000brec_t8h1/page/110 110]}}

Cleveland's population continued to grow throughout the [[Roaring Twenties]].{{sfn|Condon|1979|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandprodigy0000cond/page/99 99]}} The decade saw the establishment of the city's [[Playhouse Square]],<ref name="playhouse">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Playhouse Square |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/playhouse-square |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 31, 2019 }}</ref> and the rise of the risqué [[Downtown Cleveland#Short Vincent|Short Vincent]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Short Vincent |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/short-vincent |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 22, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Miller |first=Marilyn |title=Short Vincent: A Walk on Cleveland's Historic Wild Side |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/64 |access-date=June 5, 2023 }}</ref> The Bal-Masque balls of the avant-garde [[Kokoon Arts Club]] scandalized the city.{{sfn|Adams|Waldman|2011|pp=85–87}}<ref>{{cite web |title=The Kokoon Arts Klub |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/851 |access-date=August 9, 2019 }}</ref> [[Jazz]] came to prominence in Cleveland during this period.<ref>{{cite news |last=Theiss |first=Evelyn |title=In Cleveland's 'second downtown,' jazz once filled the air: Elegant Cleveland |newspaper=[[The Plain Dealer]] |url=https://www.cleveland.com/arts/2012/02/in_clevelands_second_downtown.html |date=February 5, 2012 |access-date=June 19, 2023 }}</ref>{{sfn|Mosbrook|2013|p=10}} [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] first took effect in Ohio in May 1919 (although it was not well-enforced in Cleveland), became law with the [[Volstead Act]] in 1920, and was eventually [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|repealed]] nationally by [[United States Congress|Congress]] in 1933.<ref name="prohibition">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Prohibition Amendment |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/prohibition-amendment |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=June 18, 2018 }}</ref> The ban on alcohol led to the rise of [[Speakeasy|speakeasies]] throughout the city and organized crime gangs, such as the [[Mayfield Road Mob]], who smuggled bootleg liquor across [[Lake Erie]] from Canada into Cleveland.<ref name="prohibition" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kelly |first=Ralph |title=Murder in Cleveland: The Prohibition Toll. Chapter 3—Rise of the Rum Kings; the 'Bloody Corner |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |pages=1, 5 |date=December 28, 1933 }}</ref>

[[File:Euclid Avenue 1918 CP06293 - DPLA - c71a7b0702bca63a585bd2365a66f7c6.jpg|thumb|left|[[Euclid Avenue (Cleveland)|Euclid Avenue]] and East 9th Street with the Hickox Building in 1918]]
The era of the [[flapper]] marked the beginning of the golden age in Downtown Cleveland retail, centered on major department stores [[Higbee's]], Bailey's, the [[May Company Ohio|May Company]], [[William Taylor & Son|Taylor's]], [[Halle Brothers Co.|Halle's]], and [[Sterling-Lindner Co.|Sterling Lindner Davis]], which collectively represented one of the largest and most fashionable shopping districts in the country, often compared to New York's [[Fifth Avenue]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Downtown Department Stores: Cleveland's Fifth Avenue |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/23#.Vd5BjZed6jg |access-date=June 5, 2023 }}</ref> In 1929, Cleveland hosted the first of many [[National Air Races]], and [[Amelia Earhart]] flew to the city from [[Santa Monica, California]] in the [[Women's Air Derby]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland National Air Races |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/151 |access-date=July 15, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Guerrieri |first=Vince |title=The Rise and Fall of the Cleveland Air Races |publisher=Ohio Magazine |url=https://www.ohiomagazine.com/ohio-life/article/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-cleveland-air-races |date=July 2021 |access-date=January 4, 2024 }}</ref> The [[Van Sweringen brothers]] commenced construction of the [[Terminal Tower]] skyscraper in 1926 and oversaw it to completion in 1927.{{sfn|Harwood|2003|pp=134–135}} By the time the building was dedicated as part of [[Cleveland Union Terminal]] in 1930, the city had a population of over 900,000.<ref name="timeline" />

Cleveland was hit hard by the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] and the subsequent [[Great Depression]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/146 146]|loc="Industrialist [[Cyrus S. Eaton|Cyrus Eaton]] would later say that Cleveland was hurt more by the Depression than any other city in the United States"}} A center of [[Labor unions in the United States|union activity]], the city saw significant [[Labor history of the United States|labor struggles]] in this period, including strikes by workers against [[Fisher Body]] in 1936 and against [[Republic Steel]] in 1937.<ref name="labor" /> The city was also aided by major federal works projects sponsored by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|pp=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/136 136–139]}} In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the [[Great Lakes Exposition]] debuted in June 1936 at the city's [[North Coast Harbor]], along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown.{{sfn|Porter|1976|pp=106–107}} Conceived by Cleveland's business leaders as a way to revitalize the city during the Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Great Lakes Exposition |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/great-lakes-exposition |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=March 21, 2019 }}</ref>

[[File:Aeroplane View of Union Terminal Group and Public Square (NBY 1512).jpg|thumb|upright|Postcard of [[Public Square (Cleveland)|Public Square]] and the then-new [[Cleveland Union Terminal]] in 1930]]
On December 7, 1941, Imperial Japan [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked Pearl Harbor]] and [[Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire|declared war]] on the U.S. Two of the victims of the attack were Cleveland natives – Rear Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd]] and ensign William Halloran.{{sfn|Albrecht|Banks|2015|p=8}} The attack signaled America's entry into [[World War II]]. A major hub of the "[[Arsenal of Democracy]]", Cleveland under Mayor [[Frank Lausche]] contributed massively to the [[United States home front during World War II|U.S. war effort]] as the fifth largest manufacturing center in the nation.{{sfn|Albrecht|Banks|2015|p=54}} During his tenure, Lausche also oversaw the establishment of the Cleveland Transit System, the predecessor to the [[Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority]].<ref name="RTA-history">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/greater-cleveland-regional-transit-authority |access-date=July 22, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref>