Editing Chinese nationalism (section)

==Ethnicity==
{{See also|List of ethnic groups in China|Han chauvinism|Hua–Yi distinction|Racism in China}}
[[File:Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese nationalist leaders [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (left) and [[Sun Yat-sen]] (right)]]
[[File:Greatwall large.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Wall]], a national symbol of China]]
Defining the relationship between ethnicity and the Chinese identity has been a very complex issue throughout [[Chinese history]]. In the 17th century, with the help of Ming Chinese rebels, the Manchus conquered [[China proper]] and set up the Qing dynasty. Over the next centuries, they would incorporate groups such as the [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]], the Mongols, and the [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]] into territories which they controlled. The Manchus were faced with the simultaneous task of maintaining loyalty among the people who they ruled and maintaining their distinct identity. The main method by which they accomplished control of the Chinese heartland was by portraying themselves as enlightened [[Confucian]] sages part of whose goal was to preserve and advance Chinese civilization. Over the course of centuries, the Manchus were gradually assimilated into [[Chinese culture]] and eventually, many Manchus identified themselves as a people of China.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

The Chinese nation has also been referred to as the [[Yan Huang Zisun|descendants of Yan and Yellow Emperors]], legendary rulers who are considered the historical ancestors of the [[Huaxia]] people, an ethnic group whose members were the ancestors of the [[Han Chinese]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yeo |first1=K.K. |title=Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian theology |date=2008 |publisher=Cascade Books |isbn=9781556354885| page=407 | quote=Zhonghua (Chinese) or huaren (Chinese people) can be inclusive terms that refer to a common ancestry, traceable according to legend to the Yellow Emperor. Sometimes the Chinese are called the Yan-Huang zisun—descendants of the legendary Emperor Yan (a.k.a. Shen Nong, god of husbandry and first pharmacist) and Emperor Huang (whose burial place is in Huangling). [...] The legend of Emperors Yan-Huang can provide only an "imagined" identity for those who wish their genealogy to be traced to the royal gene of the emperors.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Yuan |first1=Haiwang |title=The magic lotus lantern and other tales from the Han Chinese |url=https://archive.org/details/magiclotuslanter00yuan_633 |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |isbn=9781591582946 |page=[https://archive.org/details/magiclotuslanter00yuan_633/page/n28 10] | quote=The Chinese believe that they all came from the common ancestors Sanhuang Wudi [...] referring to themselves as Yanhuang zisun (descendants of Yandi and Huangdi).)}}</ref>

The complexity of the relationship between ethnicity and Chinese identity was best exemplified during the [[Taiping Rebellion]] in which the rebels fiercely fought against the Manchus on the ground that they were barbarians and foreigners while at the same time, others fought just as fiercely on behalf of the Manchus on the ground that they were the preservers of traditional Chinese values.
[[File:Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|Soldiers of the Yihetuan.]]
The [[Boxers (group)|Yihetuan]], also known as the Boxers, were a Chinese nationalist and pro-Qing [[monarchist]] [[secret society]] which instigated and led the [[Boxer Rebellion]] from 1899 to 1901. Their motivations were [[Anti-Christian sentiment|Anti-Christianism]] and [[Anti-Western sentiment|resistance to Westernisation]]. At their peak, the Boxers were supported by some members of the [[Military of the Qing dynasty|Imperial Army]]. Their slogan was "Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners!".<ref name=":2">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Boxer-Rebellion |series=Boxer Rebellion |title=Significance, Combatants, Definition, & Facts |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=2017-12-02 |language=en |archive-date=10 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010113506/https://www.britannica.com/event/Boxer-Rebellion |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1909, the ''Law of Nationality of Great Qing'' ({{lang-zh|t=大清國籍條例|c=|s=|p=Dà qīng guójí tiáolì}}) was published by the Manchu government, which defined Chinese with the following rules: 1) born in China while his/her father is a Chinese; 2) born after his/her father's death while his/her father is a Chinese at his death; 3) his/her mother is a Chinese while his/her father's nationality is unclear or stateless.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D%E6%A2%9D%E4%BE%8B|language=zh-Hant|script-title=zh:大清國籍條例|website=Wikisource (Chinese version)|publisher=Qing government|trans-title=Law of Nationality of Great Qing|year=1909|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929112751/https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D%E6%A2%9D%E4%BE%8B|archive-date=29 September 2019}}</ref>

In 1919, the May Fourth Movement grew out of student protests against the [[Treaty of Versailles]], especially its terms allowing [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] to [[Shandong Problem|keep territories]] surrendered by [[German Empire|Germany]] after the [[Siege of Tsingtao]], and spurned upsurges of Chinese nationalism amongst the protests.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

In the 1920s and 1930s, the official Chinese nationalistic view was heavily influenced by [[modernism]] and [[Social Darwinism]], and it included advocacy of the [[cultural assimilation]] of ethnic groups in the western and central provinces into the "culturally advanced" Han state, a policy which would enable them to become members of the Chinese nation in name as well as in fact. Furthermore, it was also influenced by the fate of multi-ethnic states such as [[Austria-Hungary]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. It also became a very powerful force during the Japanese occupation of Coastal China during the 1930s and 1940s and the atrocities committed then.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

Influenced by the 1911 Revolution and the appearance of modern nationalist theories, "[[Zhonghua minzu]]" in the early [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]], referred to the [[Five Races Under One Union]] concept. This principle held that the five major ethnicities in China, the Han Chinese, [[Manchu people|Manchus]], [[Mongols]], [[Hui people|Hui]], and [[Tibetans]], all belonged to a single Chinese identity.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=19}} The government promoted Chinese nationalism for these five ethnic groups but with the Han Chinese are main ethnic group of "Zhonghua minzu" or China, this continued by [[Nationalist government|Nationalist rule]] under Chiang Kai-shek and his Kuomintang in all China until the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in Chinese Mainland and the Republic of China retreated to Taiwan.

While it was initially rejected by Mao Zedong and his Chinese Communist Party, it was later accepted, the concept of "Chinese" which was developed during Mao's rule was that of a "huge Chinese family" or a political union which includes the Han Chinese and [[list of ethnic groups in China|55 other ethnic groups]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou Wenjiu, Zhang Jingpeng|date=2007|title=关于"中华民族是一个"学术论辩的考察|trans-title=On the academic argument that "the Chinese nation is one"|url=https://www.ixueshu.com/document/707a828b3050b9d8cfc98c157055c2e3318947a18e7f9386.html|journal=Minzu Yanjiu|volume=3|pages=20–29|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=29 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029145113/https://www.ixueshu.com/document/707a828b3050b9d8cfc98c157055c2e3318947a18e7f9386.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the government extended the number of ethnicities comprising the Chinese nation to these 56.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=19}}

Before [[Xi Jinping]] took power in 2012, the People's Republic of China's form of Chinese nationalism was strongly influenced by the Soviet Union's [[Korenizatsiya]] policy. The Chinese Communist Party also criticized the Kuomintang-led Republic of China's support of Han chauvinism. The official ideology of the People's Republic of China asserts that China is a multi-ethnic state, where the majority Han constitute one of many ethnic groups of China, each group's culture and language should be respected (akin to [[Soviet patriotism]]{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=501}}). The government also instituted policies of [[Affirmative action in China|affirmative action]], in general, the ethnic policy of the People's Republic of China at the time was strongly influenced by the nature of its [[Marxist-Leninist state]]. Despite this official view, [[Sinicization|assimilationist attitudes]] remain deeply entrenched, and popular views and actual power relationships create a situation in which Chinese nationalism has in practice meant Han dominance of minority areas and peoples and assimilation of those groups.<ref name=":10" /> Since Xi Jinping took power, assimilation of non-Han ethnic groups has been overt and intensified while preferential policies for ethnic minorities have shrunk.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |author-first1=Mimi|author-last1=Lau |date=2019-12-05 |title=From Xinjiang to Ningxia, China's ethnic groups face end to affirmative action in education, taxes, policing|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3040577/chinas-ethnic-groups-face-end-affirmative-action-education |access-date=2019-12-10 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923224656/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3040577/chinas-ethnic-groups-face-end-affirmative-action-education |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Chinese nationalism within [[mainland China]] became mixed with the rhetoric of [[Marxism]], and as a result, nationalistic rhetoric was largely subsumed into internationalist rhetoric. On the other hand, the primary focus of Chinese nationalism in [[Taiwan]] was the preservation of the ideals and lineage of Sun Yat-sen, the party which he founded, the Kuomintang (KMT), and [[anti-Communism]]. While the definition of Chinese nationalism differed in the [[Republic of China]] (ROC) and the PRC, the KMT and the CCP were both adamant in their claims on Chinese territories such as [[Senkaku Islands|Senkaku (Diaoyutai) Islands]].{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

In the 1990s, the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], rising economic standards and the lack of any other legitimizing ideology, has led to what most observers see as a resurgence of nationalism within mainland China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Segal |first=Gerald |date=1992 |title=China and the Disintegration of the Soviet Union |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=848–868 |doi=10.2307/2645075 |issn=0004-4687 |jstor=2645075}}</ref>

=== Ethnic minorities ===
==== Chinese Muslims and Uyghurs ====
{{See also|Hui pan-nationalism}}
[[File:Hu Songshan.jpg|thumb|[[Hu Songshan]], a Chinese Muslim Imam who was a Chinese nationalist.]]
[[Islam in China|Chinese Muslims]] have played an important role in Chinese nationalism. Chinese Muslims, known as Hui people, are a mixture of the descendants of foreign Muslims like Arabs and Persians, who mixed with Han Chinese who converted to Islam. Chinese Muslims are speak Chinese and practice Confucianism.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

[[Hu Songshan]], a Muslim Imam from [[Ningxia]], was a Chinese nationalist and preached Chinese nationalism and the unity of all Chinese people and against foreign imperialism and other threats to China's sovereignty.<ref name="google210">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA167|title=Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China|author=Jonathan Neaman Lipman|year=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|page=210|isbn=0-295-97644-6|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205041900/https://books.google.com/books?id=90CN0vtxdY0C&pg=PA167|archive-date=5 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> He even ordered the [[Flag of the Republic of China|Chinese Flag]] to be saluted during prayer, and that all Imams in Ningxia preach Chinese nationalism. Hu Songshan led the [[Yihewani|Ikhwan]], the Chinese Muslim Brotherhood, which became a Chinese nationalist, patriotic organization, stressing education and independence of the individual.<ref name="google210" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lSxYAAAAMAAJ|title=Papers from the Conference on Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance, Banff, August 20–24, 1987, Volume 3|year=1987|page=30|author=Joint Committee on Chinese Studies (U.S|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-date=24 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324234944/https://books.google.com/books?id=lSxYAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NyhtAAAAMAAJ|title=Devout societies vs. impious states?: transmitting Islamic learning in Russia, Central Asia and China, through the twentieth century : proceedings of an international colloquium held in the Carré des Sciences, French Ministry of Research, Paris, November 12–13, 2001|author=Stéphane A. Dudoignon|year=2004|publisher=Schwarz|page=69|isbn=3-87997-314-8|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805084121/https://books.google.com/books?id=NyhtAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Hu Songhan also wrote a prayer in Arabic and Chinese, praying for [[Allah]] to support the Chinese Kuomintang government and defeat Japan.<ref>Lipman, ''Familiar Strangers,'' p 200</ref> Hu Songshan also cited a [[Hadith]] ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=聖訓}}), a saying of the prophet [[Muhammad]], which says "Loving the Motherland is equivalent to loving the Faith" ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t=“愛護祖國是屬於信仰的一部份”}}). Hu Songshan harshly criticized those who were non-patriotic and those who taught anti-nationalist thinking, saying that they were fake Muslims.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

[[Ma Qixi]] was a Muslim reformer and a leader of the [[Xidaotang]], and he taught that Islam could be understood only by using Chinese culture such as Confucianism. He read classic Chinese texts and even took his cue from [[Laozi]] when he decided to go on [[Hajj]] to [[Mecca]].{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

[[Ma Fuxiang]], a Chinese Muslim general and Kuomintang member, was another Chinese nationalist. Ma Fuxiang preached unity of all Chinese people and even non-Han Chinese people such as Tibetans and Mongols to stay in China. He proclaimed that Mongolia and Tibet were part of the Republic of China, not independent countries.<ref>Lipman, ''Familiar Strangers,'' p. 167</ref> Ma Fuxiang was loyal to the Chinese government and crushed Muslim rebels when ordered to. Ma Fuxiang believed that modern education would help Hui Chinese build a better society and help China resist foreign imperialism and help build the nation. He was praised for his "guojia yizhi"(national consciousness) by non-Muslims. Ma Fuxiang also published many books, and wrote on Confucianism and Islam, having studied both the [[Quran]] and the [[Spring and Autumn Annals]].{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

Ma Fuxiang had served under the Chinese Muslim general [[Dong Fuxiang]] and fought against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion.<ref>Lipman, ''Familiar Strangers,'' p. 169</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC&pg=PA182 |title=The origins of the Boxer Uprising|author=Joseph Esherick|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, California|isbn=978-0-520-06459-1|page=182|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> The Muslim unit he served in was noted for being anti-foreign, being involved in shooting a Westerner and a Japanese to death before the Boxer Rebellion broke out.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC&pg=PA182 |title=The origins of the Boxer Uprising|author=Joseph Esherick|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, California|isbn=978-0-520-06459-1|page=302|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> It was reported that the Muslim troops were going to wipe out the foreigners to return a golden age for China, and the Muslims repeatedly attacked foreign churches, railways, and legations, before hostilities even started.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6WsKAQAAIAAJ|title=The diary of His Excellency Ching-shan: being a Chinese account of the Boxer troubles|author=Ching-shan, Jan Julius Lodewijk Duyvendak|year=1976|publisher=University Publications of America|isbn=978-0-89093-074-8|page=14|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801025547/https://books.google.com/books?id=6WsKAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The Muslim troops were armed with modern repeater rifles and artillery, and reportedly enthusiastic about going on the offensive and killing foreigners. Ma Fuxiang led an ambush against the foreigners at [[Langfang]] and inflicted many casualties, using a train to escape. Dong Fuxiang was a xenophobe and hated foreigners, wanting to drive them out of China.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

Various Muslim organizations in China like the [[Islamic Association of China]] and the [[Chinese Muslim Association]] were sponsored by the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

Chinese Muslim imams had synthesized Islam and Confucianism in the [[Han Kitab]]. They asserted that there was no contradiction between Confucianism and Islam, and no contradiction between being a Chinese national and a Muslim. Chinese Muslim students returning from study abroad, from places such as [[Al-Azhar University]] in Egypt, learned about nationalism and advocated Chinese nationalism at home. One Imam, [[Wang Jingzhai]], who studied at Mecca, translated a Hadith, or saying of Muhammad, "Aiguo Aijiao"- loving the country is equivalent to loving the faith. Chinese Muslims believed that their "Watan" {{Langx|ar|وطن|lit=country; homeland}} was the whole of the Republic of China, non-Muslims included.<ref name="Masumi">{{cite web|url=http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|title=The completion of the idea of dual loyalty towards China and Islam|last=Masumi|first=Matsumoto|access-date=28 June 2010|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724054724/http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|archive-date=24 July 2011}}</ref>

General [[Bai Chongxi]], the warlord of [[Guangxi]], and a member of the Kuomintang, presented himself as the protector of Islam in China and harbored Muslim intellectuals fleeing from the Japanese invasion in Guangxi. General Bai preached Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism. Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese. Translations from Egyptian writings and the Quran were used to support propaganda in favour of a [[Jihad]] against Japan.<ref name="Masumi"/>

[[File:Ma Bufang.jpg|thumb|[[Ma Bufang]], a Chinese Muslim general]]
[[Ma Bufang]], a Chinese Muslim general who was part of the Kuomintang, supported Chinese nationalism and tolerance between the different Chinese ethnic groups. The Japanese tried to approach him to gain his support but were unsuccessful. Ma presented himself as a Chinese nationalist who fought against Western [[imperialism]] to the people of China to deflect criticism by opponents that his government was feudal and that it oppressed minorities like the Tibetans and Buddhist Mongols. He presented himself as a Chinese nationalist to his advantage to keep himself in power, as noted by the author Uradyn Erden Bulag.<ref>{{cite book |author=Uradyn Erden Bulag |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3C2B9oXVbQC&q=patriotism |title=Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-7425-1144-8 |publication-place=[[City University of New York]] |pages=48 |language=en |access-date=28 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511074059/http://books.google.com/books?id=g3C2B9oXVbQC&dq=ma+bufang+chinese+nationalism&q=patriotism#v=onepage&q=patriotism%20ma%20bufang%20british&f=false |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3C2B9oXVbQC&q=patriotism|title=Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity|author=Uradyn Erden Bulag|year=2002|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=49|isbn=0-7425-1144-8|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511074059/http://books.google.com/books?id=g3C2B9oXVbQC&dq=ma+bufang+chinese+nationalism&q=patriotism#v=onepage&q=patriotism%20ma%20bufang%20family%20feudalism&f=false|archive-date=11 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[Xinjiang]], the Chinese Muslim general [[Ma Hushan]] supported Chinese nationalism. He was chief of the [[36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)|36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army]]. He spread [[anti-Sovietism|anti-Soviet]] and [[Anti-Japanese sentiment|anti-Japanese]] [[Propaganda in the Republic of China|propaganda]] and instituted a colonial regime over the [[Uyghurs]]. Uyghur street names and signs were changed to Chinese, and the Chinese Muslim troops imported Chinese cooks and baths, rather than use Uyghur ones.<ref name="google130">{{cite book |author=Andrew D. W. Forbes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA130 |title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-25514-1 |location=Cambridge, England |page=130 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> The Chinese Muslims even forced the Uyghur carpet industry at [[Khotan]] to change its design to Chinese versions.<ref>{{cite book |author=Andrew D. W. Forbes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131 |title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-25514-1 |edition=illustrated |location=Cambridge, England |pages=131 |language=en |access-date=28 June 2010 |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103183055/https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ma proclaimed his loyalty to Nanjing, denounced [[Sheng Shicai]] as a Soviet puppet, and [[Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)|fought against him]] in 1937.<ref name="google130"/>

The [[Tungans]] (Hui Chinese Muslims) also had anti-Japanese sentiment.<ref name="google130"/>

General Ma Hushan's brother [[Ma Zhongying]] denounced separatism in a speech at [[Id Kah Mosque]] and told the Uyghurs to be loyal to the Chinese government at [[Nanjing]].<ref>{{cite book |author=[[S. Frederick Starr]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA79 |title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=2004 |isbn=0-7656-1318-2 |pages=79 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA200 |title=Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang|author=James A. Millward|year=2007|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-13924-3|page=200}}</ref><ref name=Forbes>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|year=1986|publisher=CUP Archive|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-25514-7|pages=82, 123, 124, 303|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704173905/http://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ|archive-date=4 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The 36th division had crushed the [[Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan]], and the Chinese Muslim general [[Ma Zhancang]] beheaded the Uyghur emirs [[Abdullah Bughra]] and [[Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Christian Tyler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C&pg=PA280 |title=Wild West China: the taming of Xinjiang |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-8135-3533-6 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |pages=116 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=Forbes/> Ma Zhancang abolished the [[Sharia]], the Islamic law, which was set up by the Uyghurs. He set up [[Martial law|military rule]] instead, retained the former Chinese officials, and kept them in power.<ref name=Forbes/> The Uyghurs had been promoting [[Islamism]] in their separatist government, but Ma Hushan eliminated religion from politics. Islam was barely mentioned or used in politics or life except as a vague spiritual focus for unified opposition against the Soviet Union.<ref name="google130"/>

The Uyghur warlord [[Yulbars Khan]] was pro-Chinese and supported the Republic of China.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=yulbars+khan&pg=PA225|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|year=1986|publisher=CUP Archive|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-25514-7|page=254|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=24 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824014542/https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA225&dq=yulbars+khan|url-status=live}}</ref> The Uyghur politician [[Masud Sabri]] served as the governor of [[Xinjiang Province, Republic of China|Xinjiang Province]] from 1947 to 1949.<ref name="Klimeš2015">{{cite book |author=Ondřej Klimeš |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197 |title=Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c. 1900–1949 |date=2015 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-28809-6 |pages=197– |language=en |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109175346/https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197 |archive-date=9 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Tibetans ====
[[File:PLA marching into Lhasa.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The [[army of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] took over the capital [[Lhasa]] during its [[Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China|annexation]] by [[China]] in 1951]]
[[Pandatsang Rapga]], a Tibetan politician, founded the [[Tibet Improvement Party]] with the goal of modernisation and [[Tibet Area (administrative division)|integration of Tibet into the Republic of China]].<ref name=Goldstein>{{cite book|access-date=27 December 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Upwq0I-wm7YC&q=rapga+chinese&pg=PA450|title=A history of modern Tibet, 1913–1951: the demise of the Lamaist state|author=Melvyn C. Goldstein|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|edition=reprint, illustrated|volume=1 of A History of Modern Tibet|page=450|isbn=0-520-07590-0|archive-date=24 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824014542/https://books.google.com/books?id=Upwq0I-wm7YC&pg=PA450&dq=rapga+chinese|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|access-date=27 December 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=shen+in+Chongqing+to+render+clandestine+support+to+pro-Nationalist+underground+forces+led+by+a+Khampa+Tibetan&pg=PA95|title=Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west|author=Hsiao-ting Lin|year=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|edition=illustrated|volume=67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia|page=95|isbn=978-0-415-58264-3|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819211055/https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&pg=PA95&dq=shen+in+Chongqing+to+render+clandestine+support+to+pro-Nationalist+underground+forces+led+by+a+Khampa+Tibetan#v=snippet|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 9th Panchen Lama, [[Thubten Choekyi Nyima, 9th Panchen Lama|Thubten Choekyi Nyima]], was considered extremely "pro-Chinese" according to official Chinese sources.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8YFCAAAAYAAJ&q=panchen+he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there |title=Who's who in China, 1918–1950: 1931–1950 |author=Chinese Materials Center |year=1982 |publisher=Chinese Materials Center |volume=3 of Who's who in China, 1918–1950: With an Index, Jerome Cavanaugh |access-date=7 June 2011 |archive-date=24 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824014606/https://books.google.com/books?id=8YFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there&q=panchen+he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCAWAQAAMAAJ&q=he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there |title=The China weekly review, Volume 54 |year=1930 |publisher=Millard Publishing House |page=406 |access-date=7 June 2011 |archive-date=24 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824014555/https://books.google.com/books?id=bCAWAQAAMAAJ&q=he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there&dq=he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WvaLxatYUiIC&q=he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there |title=China monthly review, Volume 56 |year=1931 |publisher=Millard Publishing Co., Inc. |page=306 |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-date=24 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824014606/https://books.google.com/books?id=WvaLxatYUiIC&q=he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there&dq=he+is+the+most+pronounced+pro-Chinese+leader+in+Tibet+and+has+rendered+great+assistance+to+the+Chinese+residing+there |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Mongols ====
Many of the Chinese troops that [[occupation of Mongolia|occupied Mongolia in 1919]] were [[Chahars|Chahar Mongols]]; tht has been a major cause for animosity between the [[Khalkha Mongols|Khalkhas]] and the Inner Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bulag |first=Uradyn Erden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3JZIdw8YDkC&pg=PA139 |title=Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=0198233574 |edition=illustrated |pages=139 |language=en |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221091442/https://books.google.com/books?id=K3JZIdw8YDkC&pg=PA139 |archive-date=21 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Manchus ====
During the late Qing dynasty, revolutionaries, especially [[Zou Rong]], incited anti-Manchuism to overthrow the dynasty.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.chss.iup.edu/baumler/zourong.html |title=Zou Rong The Revolutionary Army |access-date=2008-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926224557/http://www.chss.iup.edu/baumler/zourong.html |archive-date=2008-09-26 }}</ref>

A controversial topic of Chinese history is the [[Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties|debate on the extent]] to which the Mongol-led [[Yuan dynasty]] and the Manchu-led [[Qing dynasty]] represented China as a nation because of the non-Han identity of the ruling dynasties.