Editing Carausius (section)

==Coinage and inscriptions==
Coinage is the main source of information about the rogue emperor; his coinage was issued from mints in [[Roman London|Londinium]], [[Rouen|Rotomagus]] (Rouen) and a third site, possibly [[Camulodunum|Colonia Claudia Victricensis]] (Colchester). He also used them for sophisticated propaganda. He issued the first proper silver coins that had appeared in the [[Roman Empire]] for generations, knowing that good quality bullion coinage would enhance his legitimacy and make him look more successful than [[Diocletian]] and [[Maximian]].

In April 2010 a large [[Frome Hoard|hoard]] of over 52,500 Roman coins was unearthed in a field near [[Frome]], [[Somerset]]. 766 of these coins were determined to have been produced during Carausius's reign, of which only 5 were silver [[denarius|denarii]]. This find roughly equates to four years' pay for a Roman legionary, but the presence of later coin issues implies that the group was not deposited until after Carausius's death.<ref name=pas>{{cite web |url=http://finds.org.uk/blogs/fromehoard/ |title=The Frome Hoard |publisher=[[Portable Antiquities Scheme]] |access-date=2010-07-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712200444/http://finds.org.uk/blogs/fromehoard/ |archive-date=2010-07-12 }}</ref> 

===Character portrayal===
His initial issues show him as rough and thuggish, though the technical standard of die cutting on good specimens can be seen to be excellent. The intention was to portray a rough and thuggish man; his later coins show him as trim and beneficent.<ref>Roman coins and Roman communication. A discussion of the ways in which Roman coins may have communicated with their users. Richard Reece. https://www.academia.edu/38183328/Roman_coins_and_Roman_communication.doc </ref> 

===Claims of Imperial legitimacy===
He struck coins that showed three portrait heads on the reverse instead of the usual one, and a legend on the obverse including PAX AVGGG, the peace of ''three'' Augusti. This would imply that he was recognized by the other two current Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, but their own coins of the time proclaim the attributes of only two Augusti, PAX AVGG.<ref>Roman coins and Roman communication. A discussion of the ways in which Roman coins may have communicated with their users. Richard Reece. https://www.academia.edu/38183328/Roman_coins_and_Roman_communication.doc </ref> Carausius also had himself depicted as a member of the Tetrarchy's college of emperors, issuing coins with the legend CARAVSIVS ET FRATRES SVI, 'Carausius and his brothers' with portraits of himself with [[Diocletian]] and [[Maximian]].<ref>Sear, D.R., (2011), Roman Coins and Their Values Volume IV, nos.13767-74, pp.218-19.</ref> 

===Virgilian and other literary references===
Carausius appears to have appealed to native British dissatisfaction with Roman rule; he issued coins with legends such as ''Restitutor Britanniae'' (Restorer of Britain) and ''Genius Britanniae'' (Spirit of Britain). Some of these silver coins bear the legend ''Expectate veni'', "Come long-awaited one", recognised to allude to a messianic line in the [[Aeneid]] by the Augustan poet [[Virgil]], written more than 300 years previously.<ref>Virgil, Aeneid II.283, 'From what shores do you come Hector, the long-awaited one?'</ref> 

Some of the silver coins bear the legend RSR in the [[exergue]] (an area on a coin below the legend). This was considered a mystery for some time. Three Carausian copper-alloy medallions, now in the [[British Museum]], have also survived. One has the reverse legend VICTOR CARAVSIUS AVG GERM MAX with RSR in the exergue; the second has the reverse legend VICTOR CARAVSI AVG ('The Victory of Carausius Augustus') with INPCDA in the exergue; and the third is too damaged for an exergue legend to be visible but bears the reverse legend PACATOR ORBIS 'Peace-bringer to the world'. The medallions depict Carausius in consular garb and are around 34-35 mm, weighing ~22 g. The medals appeared on the market in the twentieth century and reached the British Museum in 1972, 1967 (this one was first shown to the Museum in 1931) and 1997 respectively. All bear evidence of chemical corrosion resulting from burial of some sort as can be seen from their present appearance.<ref>For images, see http://www.forumancientcoins.com/lateromancoinage/carausius/medallions/medallions.html</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1669438&partId=1&searchText=g68%2F2*&page=1|title = Medallion {{pipe}} British Museum}}</ref><ref>Sear, D.R., (2011), Roman Coins and Their Values Volume IV, nos.13765-66A, pp.217.</ref>

Since 1998 these letters have been recognised as representing the sixth and seventh lines of the Fourth [[Eclogue]] of Virgil, which reads ''Redeunt Saturnia Regna, Iam Nova Progenies Caelo Demittitur Alto'', meaning "The Golden Ages are back, now a new generation is let down from Heaven above". Virgil's works, or at any rate quotations from them, were current in Roman popular culture. [[Suetonius]] cites three instances in which Virgilian lines were quoted.<ref>Suetonius, Augustus 40.5 (Aeneid VI.808-12), Nero 47.2 (Aeneid XII.646), Domitian 9.1 (Georgics 2.537).</ref> [[Cassius Dio]] cites an instance of a praetorian tribune quoting Virgil as a means of criticising [[Septimius Severus]] after an attack on Hatra went badly in 199.<ref>Dio 76.10.1-3; Aeneid XI.371-3</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Guy|last1=de la Bédoyère|author-link=Guy de la Bédoyère |title=Carausius and the Marks RSR and I.N.P.C.D.A.|journal=The Numismatic Chronicle|volume=158|year=1998|pages=79–88|jstor=42668550}}</ref> 

Copper-alloy medallions already existed in the contemporary repertoire of imperial Roman coinage so Carausius's production should not be considered exceptional. [[Numerian]] (283-4) and his brother [[Carinus]] (283-5) both issued copper-alloy medallions of similar size and weight to those of Carausius, often depicting the three Monetae (goddesses of the mint).<ref>For example Cohen 55 and 58</ref> Another depicts Numerian in consular garb and on the reverse himself and his father [[Carus]] in a quadriga pulled by Victory with the legend TRIVNF.QVADOR, 'the triumph over the [[Quadi]] tribe', and is clearly similar in tone to the Carausian INPCDA medallion.<ref>Cohen 91</ref>

Although the Virgilian reference might seem remarkable in the context of late third century Roman Britain it is apparent from other contemporary literature that the Tetrarchy legitimist regime was utilising Virgilian allusions and references in its propaganda, and claiming itself to have restored a Golden Age.<ref>'The Golden Age was a recurrent leitmotif of the Tetrarchs' publicity'. O. O. Nicholson, 'The Wild Man of the Tetrarchy [Galerius],' Byzantium 54 (1984) 266.</ref> 'The rule of Saturn over a golden age is a literary commonplace ... as is the association of any emperor's reign with the same thing'.<ref>Nixon, C. E. V., and Rodgers, B.S., (1994), In Praise of Later Emperors: the Panegyricii Latini, University of California Press, Berkeley, 170.</ref>

An imperial panegyric to [[Maximian]] states 'Indeed, as the fact is, those golden ages which once flourished briefly in the reign of Saturn, are now reborn under the perpetual guidance of Jove and Hercules.'<ref>Imperial Panegyrics IX (IV).13.1ff.and cited by Nixon and Rodgers, see previous note</ref> [[Lactantius]], a Christian writer of the period and opponent of the Tetrarchs, makes a number of disparaging references to the Tetrarchs and their Saturnian pretensions which seem to be a refutation of official propaganda.<ref>Principally Divine Institutes 1 and 5, for example 5.5 'they repeat examples of justice from the times of Saturnus, which they call the golden times, and they relate in what condition human life was while it delayed on the earth. And this is not to be regarded as a poetic fiction, but as the truth.'</ref>

Carausius was claiming to represent a revival of traditional Roman virtues and the great traditions of the Empire as established by [[Augustus]] in the last decades of the first century BC, not in [[Rome]] but in Britain. However, he appears to have adopted a propaganda theme that was already current in Tetrarchal publicity which corresponds with the use of similar literary allusions. 

An alternative school of thought exists which argues the medallions must be eighteenth-century fantasy pieces on the basis that such arcane literary allusions would have been too obscure to Carausius and his army. This argument contends that the antiquarian [[William Stukeley]] or someone like him found the RSR on Carausius's silver coinage, and noted that this matched the Redeunt Saturnia Regna (RSR) of the 6th line of the Fourth Eclogue. Thus inspired, the medallions were created with the next line of the Eclogue included on one of them. The central points of this argument are that Stukeley had published a detailed book on Carausius and his coinage,<ref>Stukeley, W., 1757, The Medallic History of Marcus Aurelius Valerius(sic) Carausius</ref> and that the medallions have no known provenance.<ref>Williams, H. P. G., (2004), Carausius. A consideration of the historical, archaeological and numismatic aspects of his reign. British Archaeological Reports (British Series) no. 378, pp. 81-82.</ref> However, this published argument does not offer any evidence to support Stukeley's involvement or motives (since Stukeley never mentions the medals or a Virgilian expansion of the RSR coins known to him), or include discussion of the literary evidence of the contemporary panegyrics or any of the scholarly publications concerning them, or explain why the medallions appear on the basis of their present appearance to have been buried and why they were unknown until 1931 when the INPCDA one was first brought to the British Museum.

===Milestones===
A [[milestone]] from [[Carlisle]] with his name on it suggests that the whole of [[Roman Britain]] was in Carausius's grasp.<ref>Frere, ''Britannia'', p. 327-328</ref> The inscription reads (with expansions in square brackets) "IMP[eratori] C[aesari] M[arco] | AVR[elio] MAVS[aeo] | CARAVSIO P[io] F[elici] | INVICTO AVG[usto]", this translates as "For the Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius Pius Felix Invictus Augustus".<ref name="RIB 2291. Milestone of Carausius">{{cite web|title=RIB 2291. Milestone of Carausius|url=http://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/2291|website=Roman Inscriptions of Britain|access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref> The title indicates he considered himself equal to the [[Tetrarchy]]'s ''senior'' emperors (''[[augustus (honorific)|Augusti]]''), rather than their subordinate junior emperors (''[[caesar (title)|Caesares]]''). The milestone was reused in about 306, burying the first inscription and adding a new one at the other end, which translates as "For Flavius Valerius Constantinus, most noble Caesar" and refers to [[Constantius Chlorus|Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius Herculius Augustus]] (Constantius I).<ref name="RIB 2292. Milestone of Constantine I">{{cite web|title=RIB 2292. Milestone of Constantine I|url=http://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/2292|website=Roman Inscriptions of Britain|access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref> Some more text on the stone, probably a continuation of the Carausius inscription after a gap because it is orientated the same way, was chiselled away, presumably when the stone was reused; the traces remaining suggest it included (translated) "... the Emperor ...".