Editing Caesarea Maritima (section)

===Classical antiquity===
''Stratonos pyrgos'' (Straton's Tower) was founded in the 4th century BCE by [[Abdashtart I]], or Straton I king of [[Sidon]].<ref name=Straton>{{cite journal |jstor= 1356838 |title= The Problem of the Location of Straton's Tower |journal= Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |issue= 252 |author1= Duane W. Roller |author2= Robert L. Hohlfelder |pages= 61–68|year= 1983 |doi= 10.2307/1356838 |s2cid= 163628792 }}</ref> It was first established as a [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] colony and trading village.<ref name=Routledge/> In 90 BCE, Jewish ruler [[Alexander Jannaeus]] captured Straton's Tower as part of his policy of developing the shipbuilding industry and enlarging the [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean kingdom]].<ref name="Straton" /> Straton's Tower remained a Jewish settlement for two more generations, until the area became dominated by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s in 63 BCE, when they declared it an autonomous city.<ref name="Straton" />

====Herodian Caesarea====
[[File:Caesarea Maritima aqueduct.jpg|thumb|The Roman aqueduct]][[File:אמפי קיסריה.jpg|thumb|The theatre]]
Caesarea was built in [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman Judea]] under the Jewish client King [[Herod the Great]] during {{circa}} 22-10/9 BCE near the ruins of the small naval station of Straton's Tower.<ref name="Straton" /> The site, along with all of Judea, was awarded by Rome to Herod in 30 BCE.<ref name="UNESCO">"In the year 30 BCE the (Phoenician) village was awarded to Herod, who built a large port city at the site, and called it "Caesarea" in honor of his patron Octavian Augustus Caesar....The city transformed rapidly into a great commercial centre, and by the year 6 BCE became the headquarters of the Roman government in Palestine. Since Caesarea had no rivers or springs, drinking water for the prospering Roman and Byzantine city was brought via a unique high-level aqueduct, originating at the nearby Shuni springs, some 7.5&nbsp;km northeast of Caesarea. [...] Caesarea served as a base for the Roman legions who quelled the Great Revolt that erupted in 66 BCE [sic], and it was here that their commanding general Vespasian was declared Caesar. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Caesarea became the most important city in the country: Pagans, Samaritans, Jews and Christians lived here in the third and fourth centuries CE.''[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1480/ UNESCO tentative list:Caesarea]''</ref> The pagan city underwent vast changes under Herod, who renamed it Caesarea in honour of the Roman emperor, [[Caesar Augustus]].<ref name="Straton" /><ref name="nie" /> Caesarea was known as the administrative, economic, and cultural capital of the Judean province from this time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Masalha |first=Nur |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1046449706 |title=Palestine : a four thousand year history |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-78699-272-7 |location=London |pages=93 |oclc=1046449706}}</ref>[[File:Caesarea Maritima BW 2010-09-23 09-26-26 stitch.jpg|thumb|The Herodian hippodrome]]In 22 BCE, Herod began construction of a deep-sea harbour named Sebastos and built storerooms, markets, wide roads, baths, a temple to the [[Roma (personification)|goddess Roma]] and Emperor [[Augustus]], and imposing public buildings.<ref>Crossan, 1999, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=GaYKGrqXCwEC&pg=PA232 232]</ref> Herod built his palace on a promontory jutting out into the sea, with a decorative pool surrounded by [[stoa]]s.<ref name="nie" /><ref name="UNESCO" /> Every five years, the city hosted major sports competitions, gladiator games, and theatrical productions in its theatre overlooking the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hohlfelder |first=Robert L. |title=Caesarea |journal=Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary |volume=1 |pages=800}}</ref>

===== Sebastos harbor =====
[[File:125423 caesarea national park PikiWiki Israel.jpg|thumb|The harbor]]
Herod built the two [[jetty|jetties]] of the harbour between 22 and 15 BCE,<ref name="Votruba2007">Votruba, G., 2007, Imported building materials of Sebastos Harbour, Israel, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36: 325-335.</ref> and in 10/9 BCE he dedicated the city and harbour to Emperor Augustus (''[[sebastos]]'' is Greek for ''[[Augustus (honorific)|augustus]]'').<ref>Raban, A., 1992. Sebastos: the royal harbour at Caesarea Maritima - a short-lived giant, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21: 111-124.</ref> The pace of construction was impressive considering the project's size and complexity.<ref name="Hohlfelder2007">Hohlfelder, R. 2007. "Constructing the Harbour of Caesarea Palaestina, Israel: New Evidence from ROMACONS Field Campaign of October 2005". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:409-415.</ref> At its height, Sebastos was one of the most impressive harbours of its time. It had been constructed on a coast that had no natural harbours and served as an important commercial harbour in antiquity, rivaling [[Cleopatra|Cleopatra's]] harbour at [[Alexandria]]. [[Josephus]] writes: "Although the location was generally unfavorable, [Herod] contended with the difficulties so well that the solidity of the construction could not be overcome by the sea, and its beauty seemed finished off without impediment."<ref name="Holum1988">Holum, K. 1988. King Herod's Dream: Caesarea on the Sea. New York: Norton.</ref>

When it was built in the 1st century BCE, the harbour of Sebastos ranked as the largest artificial harbour built in the open sea, enclosing around 100,000 m<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Menachery87">George Menachery, 1987 in Kodungallur, City of St. Thomas, Azhikode, 1987, Chapter II note 19 quotes the National Geographic article: Robert L. Hohlfelder, "Caesarea Maritima, Herod the Great's City on the Sea". ''[[The National Geographic]]'', 171/2, February 1987, pp. 260-79.<br />2000 years ago, Caesarea Maritima welcomed ships to its harbour called Sebastos. Featuring innovative design and hydraulic concrete, this building feat set a standard for harbours to come. A monumental work, city and harbour were constructed on an unstable storm-battered shore, at a site lacking a protective cape or bay. The project challenged Rome's most skilled engineers. Hydraulic concrete blocks, some weighing {{convert|50|ST}} anchored the north breakwater of the artificial harbour ... Caesarea Maritima, rival to Alexandria in the Eastern trade, a city worthy to be named for Herod's patron, Caesar Augustus, master of the Roman world, in view of its opulence and magnificence.</ref><ref name="Hohlfelder2007" /><ref>Votruba, G. 2007. "Imported Building Materials of Sebastos Harbour, Israel." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:325-335.</ref>

The [[breakwater (structure)|breakwater]]s were made of [[Lime (material)|lime]] and [[pozzolana]], a type of volcanic ash, set into an underwater concrete. Herod imported over 24,000 m<sup>3</sup> of pozzolana from the name-giving town of [[Pozzuoli|Puteoli, today Pozzuoli]] in Italy, to construct the two breakwaters: the southern one 500 meter, and the northern one 275 meter long.<ref name="Hohlfelder2007" />

A shipment of this size would have required at least 44 shiploads of 400 tons each.<ref name="Votruba2007" /> Herod also had 12,000 m<sup>3</sup> of local [[kurkar]] stone quarried to make rubble and 12,000 m<sup>3</sup> of slaked lime mixed with the pozzolana.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Porath |first1=Yosef |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1fzhdc0 |title=Caesarea Maritima I: Herod's circus and related buildings Part 1: Architecture and stratigraphy |last2=Epstein |first2=Mindi |last3=Friedman |first3=Zaraza |last4=Michaeli |first4=Talila |date=2013 |publisher=Israel Antiquities Authority |isbn=978-965-406-379-1 |editor-last=Hurowitz |editor-first=Ann Roshwalb |volume=53|jstor=j.ctt1fzhdc0 }}</ref>

Architects had to devise a way to lay the wooden forms for the placement of concrete underwater. One technique was to drive stakes into the ground to make a box and then fill it with pozzolana concrete bit by bit.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/> However, this method required many divers to hammer the planks to the stakes underwater and large quantities of pozzolana were necessary.

Another technique was a double planking method used in the northern breakwater. On land, carpenters would construct a box with beams and frames on the inside and a watertight, double-planked wall on the outside. This double wall was built with a {{convert|23|cm|0|abbr=on}} gap between the inner and outer layer.<ref name=Brandon1996>Brandon, C., 1996, Cements, Concrete, and Settling Barges at Sebastos: Comparisons with Other Roman Harbor Examples and the Descriptions of Vitruvius, Caesarea Maritima: A Retrospective after Two Millennia, 25-40.</ref>

Although the box had no bottom, it was buoyant enough to float out to sea because of the watertight space between the inner and outer walls. Once it was floated into position, pozzolana was poured into the gap between the walls and the box would sink into place on the seafloor and be staked down in the corners. The flooded inside area was then filled by divers bit by bit with pozzolana-lime mortar and kurkar rubble until it rose [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref name=Brandon1996/>

On the southern breakwater, [[barge]] construction was used. The southern side of Sebastos was much more exposed than the northern side, requiring sturdier breakwaters. Instead of using the double planked method filled with rubble, the architects sank barges filled with layers of pozzolana concrete and lime sand mortar. The barges were similar to boxes without lids, and were constructed using [[mortise and tenon]] joints, the same technique used in ancient boats, to ensure they remained watertight. The barges were ballasted with 0.5 meters of pozzolana concrete and floated out to their position. With alternating layers, pozzolana-based and lime-based concretes were hand-placed inside the barge to sink it and fill it up to the surface.<ref name=Brandon1996/>

However, there were underlying problems that led to its demise. Studies of the concrete cores of the moles have shown that the concrete was much weaker than similar pozzolana hydraulic concrete used in ancient Italian ports. For unknown reasons, the pozzolana mortar did not adhere as well to the [[kurkar]] rubble as it did to other rubble types used in Italian harbours.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/> Small but numerous holes in some of the cores also indicate that the lime was of poor quality and stripped out of the mixture by strong waves before it could set.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/>

Also, large lumps of lime were found in all five of the cores studied at Caesarea, which shows that the mixture was not mixed thoroughly.<ref name=Hohlfelder2007/> However, stability would not have been seriously affected if the harbour had not been constructed over a [[geological fault line]] that runs along the coast. Seismic action gradually took its toll on the breakwaters, causing them to tilt down and settle into the seabed.<ref name=Holum1988/> Studies of seabed deposits at Caesarea have shown that a [[tsunami]] struck the area sometime during the 1st or 2nd century.<ref>Reinhardt, E., Goodman, B., Boyce, J., Lopez, G., Hengstum, P., Rink, W., Mart, Y., Raban, A. 2006. "The Tsunami of 13 December A.D. 115 and the Destruction of Herod the Great's Harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel." Geology 34:1061-1064.</ref>

Although it is unknown if this tsunami simply damaged or completely destroyed the harbour, it is known that by the 6th century the harbour was unusable and today the jetties lie more than 5 meters underwater.<ref>Raban, A., 1992, Sebastos: the royal harbour at Caesarea Maritima - a short-lived giant, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21: 111-124.</ref>

====Roman Caeserea====
[[File:Caesarea maritima BW 3.JPG|thumb|250px|The Roman double aqueduct that brought water from the foot of the [[Mount Carmel|Carmel range]] to Caesarea]][[File:Ruins and mosaics in Caesarea Maritima.jpg|thumb|Mosaics]]When [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]] became a Roman province in 6 CE, Caesarea replaced [[Jerusalem]] as its civilian and military capital and became the official residence of its governors, such as procurator [[Antonius Felix]] and prefect [[Pontius Pilatus]].<ref>''A History of the Jewish People'', H. H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, page 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, page 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities ([[Sebastia, Nablus|Sebaste]], Caesarea and others)."</ref> The city was chiefly a commercial centre relying on trade.

Caeserea is described in detail by the 1st-century Roman Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]].<ref>''[[Jewish Antiquities]]'' XV.331ff; ''[[The Jewish War]]'', I.408ff</ref> Josephus describes the harbour as being as large as the one at [[Piraeus]], the major harbour of [[Athens]].<ref name="Menachery87" /> Remains of the principal buildings erected by [[Herod the Great]] as well as the medieval town are still visible today, including the Crusader city, the city walls, the ruined citadel surrounded by the sea, and remains of the cathedral and a second church. Herod's Caesarea grew rapidly, in time becoming the largest city in Judaea with an estimated population of 125,000 over an urban area of {{convert|3.7|km2}}.{{fact|date=December 2024}} According to Josephus, Caesarea was the scene in 26 CE of a major act of civil disobedience to protest against Pilate's order to plant eagle standards on the [[Temple Mount]] of [[Jerusalem]].<ref>Antiquities of the Jews XVII:III:1,2,3. The Jewish War II:IX:3.</ref>

Emperor [[Vespasian]] raised its status to that of a ''[[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]]'', with the name ''Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta Caesarea''. According to Josephus, the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War|Jewish revolt]] of 66 CE was provoked by Greeks of a certain merchant house in Caesarea sacrificing birds in front of a local synagogue.<ref>{{Cite Josephus|1J.|BJ|2.14.5|text=wars|bookno=2|chap=14|sec=5|pace=1|per=1|show-translator=no|show-source=no|abbr=yes}}</ref> In 70 CE, after the Jewish revolt was suppressed, games were held there to celebrate the victory of [[Titus]]. Many Jewish captives were brought to Caesarea; Kasher claims that 2,500 captives were "slaughtered in [[Gladiator|gladiatorial]] games".<ref>Kasher, Aryeh (1990) ''Jews and Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Hellenistic Cities During the Second Temple Period (332 BCE-70CE)'', [[Mohr Siebeck]]; {{ISBN|3-16-145241-0}}, pg. 311</ref>

In the aftermath of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] Caesarea was changed to ''[[Syria Palaestina]]'' in 135.<ref>Shimon Applebaum (1989) ''Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times: Historical and Archaeological Essays'', Brill Archive; {{ISBN|90-04-08821-0}}, pg. 123</ref> Caesarea was one of four Roman colonies for veteran Roman soldiers in the Syria-Phoenicia region.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Butcher |first1= Kevin |title= Roman Syria and the Near East |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C |year= 2003 |publisher= Getty Publications |isbn=978-08-92-36715-3}} p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA230 230]</ref> Caesarea is mentioned in the 3rd-century [[Mosaic of Rehob]], with respect to its non-Jewish population.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

=====Early Christian centre=====
{{Main|Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima}}
{{See also|Early centers of Christianity#Caesarea|Caesarea in Palaestina (diocese)}}
[[File:Caesarea maritima (DerHexer) 2011-08-02 098.jpg|thumb|The ancient city looking south]]

According to the [[Acts of the Apostles]], Caesarea was first introduced to Christianity by [[Philip the Deacon]],<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|8:40|ESV}}</ref> who later had a house there in which he gave hospitality to [[Paul the Apostle]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|21:8–10|ESV}}</ref> It was there that [[Saint Peter|Peter the Apostle]] baptized [[Cornelius the Centurion]] and his household, the first time Christian [[baptism]] was conferred on [[Gentile|Gentiles]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|10:1-11:18|ESV}}</ref> When newly converted Paul was in danger in Jerusalem, the Christians there accompanied him to Caesarea and sent him off to his native [[Tarsus, Mersin#Rome|Tarsus]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|9:30|ESV}}</ref> He visited Caesarea between his second and third missionary journeys.<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Acts|18:22|ESV}}</ref> Paul was a prisoner in Caesarea for two years before being sent to Rome.<ref>Acts 23:23, 25:1-13</ref>

In the [[Christianity in the 3rd century |3rd century]], [[Origen]] wrote his ''[[Hexapla]]'' and other exegetical and theological works while living in Caesarea. The [[Nicene Creed]] may have originated in Caesarea. The [[Apostolic Constitutions]] says that the first [[Caesarea in Palaestina (diocese)|Bishop of Caesarea]] was [[Zacchaeus]] the Publican, followed by Cornelius (possibly Cornelius the Centurion) and Theophilus (possibly the recipient of the [[Gospel of Luke]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/07157.htm|title=CHURCH FATHERS: Apostolic Constitutions, Book VII|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> The first bishops considered historically attested are those mentioned by the early church historian [[Eusebius]] of Caesarea, who was the bishop of the see in the 4th century. He speaks of [[Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea|Theophilus]] who was bishop in the 10th year of [[Commodus]] (c. 189),<ref>''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'' V,22</ref> of Theoctistus (216–258), Domnus, and Theotecnus,<ref>''Church History'' VII,14</ref> and [[Agapius of Caesarea|Agapius]]. Among the participants in the [[Synod of Ancyra]] in 314 was the bishop of Caesarea named Agricolaus, who may have been the immediate predecessor of Eusebius, who does not mention him, or who may have been bishop of a different Caesarea. The immediate successors of Eusebius were [[Acacius of Caesarea |Acacius]] (340–366) and [[Gelasius of Caesarea| Gelasius]] (367–372, 380–395). The latter was ousted by the semi-[[Arianism|Arian]] Euzoius between 373 and 379. French historian [[Michel Le Quien]] gives much information about all of these and about later bishops of Caesarea.<ref>{{Oriens christianus|volume=3|at= coll. 529-574, 1285-1290}}</ref> The [[Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem]] has a metropolitan see in Caesarea. The Latin [[Caesarea in Palaestina (diocese)|archbishopric of Caesarea in Palestina]] was made a Roman Catholic [[titular see]] in 1432.<ref name="AP">''Annuario Pontificio 2013''. Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013, p. 867. {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}.</ref> The [[Melkite Catholic Church]] considers Caesarea a titular see.<ref name="AP" />

Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter [[Pamphilus of Caesarea]], the theological school of Caesarea gained a reputation for having the most extensive [[Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima|ecclesiastical library]] of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: [[Gregory of Nazianzus|Gregory Nazianzus]], [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil the Great]], [[Jerome]] and others came to study there. The [[Caesarean text-type]] is recognized by scholars as one of the earliest [[New Testament]] types. The collections of the library suffered during [[Diocletianic Persecution|the persecutions]] under Emperor [[Diocletian]] but were repaired subsequently by bishops of Caesarea.<ref>Jerome, "Epistles" xxxiv</ref> The library is mentioned as late as 6th-century manuscripts, but it may not have survived the capture of Caesarea by the Muslim armies in 640.<ref>{{cite book|last=Swete|first=Henry Barclay|title=Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, pp 74-75}}</ref>