Editing Book of the Dead (section)

==Spells==
{{see also|List of Book of the Dead spells}}

[[File:Bookofthedeadspell17.jpg|thumb|right|The mystical Spell 17, from the [[Papyrus of Ani]]. The vignette at the top illustrates, from left to right, the god [[Nu (mythology)|Nu]] as a representation of the [[Cosmic ocean|primordial ocean]]; a gateway to the realm of Osiris; the [[Eye of Horus]]; the celestial cow [[Mehet-Weret]]; and a human head rising from a coffin, guarded by the four Sons of Horus.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.51</ref>]]

The ''Book of the Dead'' is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word ''r(ꜣ)'', which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power.<ref>Faulkner 1994, p.145; Taylor 2010, p.29</ref> In the context of the ''Book of the Dead'', it is typically translated as either ''chapter'' or ''spell''. In this article, the word ''spell'' is used.

At present, some 192 spells are known,<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.18">Faulkner 1994, p.18</ref> though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god [[Atum]].<ref>Taylor 2010, p.51, 56</ref> Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the [[Weighing of the Heart]] ritual.

Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs.<ref>Hornung 1999, p.14</ref>

The texts and images of the ''Book of the Dead'' were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves.<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.146">Faulkner 1994, p.146</ref> Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice.<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.145">Faulkner 1994, p.145</ref> The concept of magic (''[[Heka (god)|heka]]'') was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation;<ref name="Taylor 2010, p.30">Taylor 2010, p.30</ref> there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing.<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.145"/> The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god [[Thoth]], and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell.<ref name="Taylor 2010, p.30"/> This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later ''Book of the Dead'' scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.32&ndash;3; Faulkner 1994, p.148</ref> The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the ''Book of the Dead'' equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.30&ndash;1</ref>

[[File:BOTDSpell7980.jpg|thumb|Egyptian Book of the Dead, painted on a coffin fragment (c. 747–656 BC): Spell 79 (attaching the soul to the body); and Spell 80 (preventing incoherent speech)]]
The spells of the ''Book of the Dead'' made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical [[amulet]]s, which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a ''Book of the Dead'' papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy.<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.146"/> Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value.<ref>Pinch 1994, p.104&ndash;5</ref> A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva.<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.146"/>

===Organization===

Almost every ''Book of the Dead'' was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the ''Book of the Dead'' there was no defined order or structure.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.55</ref> In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts,<ref>{{cite book|last=Barguet|first=Paul|title=Le Livre des morts des anciens Égyptiens|year=1967|publisher=Éditions du Cerf|location=Paris|language=French}}</ref> Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all.<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.141">Faulkner 1994, p.141</ref> It is only from the Saite period ([[26th Dynasty]]) onwards that there is a defined order.<ref>Taylor, p.58</ref>

The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
*'''Chapters 1–16''': The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
*'''Chapters 17–63''': Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
*'''Chapters 64–129''': The deceased travels across the sky in the [[Solar barque|sun barque]] as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
*'''Chapters 130–189''': Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places.<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.141"/>