Editing Biological pest control (section)

===Importation===

[[File:Vedalia Beetle (15959056801).jpg|thumb|left|''[[Rodolia cardinalis]]'', the vedalia beetle, was imported from Australia to California in the 19th century, successfully controlling [[cottony cushion scale]] on [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] trees.]]

Importation or classical biological control involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies to a new locale where they do not occur naturally. Early instances were often unofficial and not based on research, and some introduced species became serious pests themselves.<ref name="Classical">{{cite web |title=Classical Biological Control: Importation of New Natural Enemies |url=http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/fea103.html |publisher=University of Wisconsin |access-date=7 June 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613023600/http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/fea103.html |archive-date=13 June 2016 }}</ref>

To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a colonizing ability which allows it to keep pace with changes to the habitat in space and time. Control is greatest if the agent has temporal persistence so that it can maintain its population even in the temporary absence of the target species, and if it is an opportunistic forager, enabling it to rapidly exploit a pest population.<ref name=follett>{{cite book |author1=Follett, P. A. |author2=Duan, J. J.  |date=2000 |title=Nontarget effects of biological control |publisher=Kluwer}}</ref>

One of the earliest successes was in controlling ''[[Icerya purchasi]]'' (cottony cushion scale) in Australia, using a predatory insect ''[[Rodolia cardinalis]]'' (the vedalia beetle). This success was repeated in California using the beetle and a parasitoidal fly, ''[[Cryptochaetum]] [[Cryptochaetum iceryae|iceryae]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=How to Manage Pests. Cottony Cushion Scale |url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7410.html |publisher=University of California Integrated Pest Management |access-date=5 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430061041/http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7410.html |archive-date=30 April 2016 }}</ref> Other successful cases include the control of ''[[Antonina graminis]]'' in Texas by ''[[Neodusmetia sangwani]]'' in the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.en.26.010181.001241|title=Landmark Examples in Classical Biological Control|journal=Annual Review of Entomology|volume=26|pages=213–232|year=1981|last1=Caltagirone|first1=L. E.}}</ref>

Damage from ''[[Hypera postica]]'', the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of natural enemies. 20 years after their introduction the population of [[weevil]]s in the [[alfalfa]] area treated for alfalfa weevil in the [[Northeastern United States]] remained 75 percent down.<ref>{{cite web|title=How to Manage Pests. Alfalfa |url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r1900211.html |publisher=University of California Integrated Pest Management |access-date=5 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525013314/http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r1900211.html |archive-date=25 May 2016 }}</ref>

[[Image:Alternanthera philoxeroides NRCS-1.jpg|thumb|The invasive species ''[[Alternanthera philoxeroides]]'' (alligator weed) was controlled in [[Florida]] (U.S.) by introducing [[Agasicles hygrophila|alligator weed flea beetle]].]]

[[Alligator weed]] was introduced to the United States from [[South America]]. It takes root in shallow water, interfering with [[navigation]], [[irrigation]], and [[flood control]]. The [[Agasicles hygrophila|alligator weed flea beetle]] and two other biological controls were released in [[Florida]], greatly reducing the amount of land covered by the plant.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian River Lagoon Species Inventory: Alternanthera philoxeroides |url=http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/Alternanthera_philoxeroides.htm |publisher=Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce |access-date=9 April 2017 |date=1 December 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328161203/http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/Alternanthera_philoxeroides.htm |archive-date=28 March 2017 }}</ref> Another aquatic weed, the giant salvinia (''[[Salvinia molesta]]'') is a serious pest, covering waterways, reducing water flow and harming native species. Control with the salvinia weevil (''[[Cyrtobagous salviniae]]'') and the salvinia stem-borer moth (''[[Samea multiplicalis]])'' is effective in warm climates,<ref>{{cite web|title=Salvinia (Salvinia molesta) |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/publications/guidelines/wons/pubs/s-molesta.pdf |publisher=CRC Weed Management |access-date=7 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924073642/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/publications/guidelines/wons/pubs/s-molesta.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.invasive.org/proceedings/pdfs/6_543-549.pdf|title=A summary of research into biological control of salvinia in Australia}}</ref> and in Zimbabwe, a 99% control of the weed was obtained over a two-year period.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Chikwenhere, Godfrey P. |author2=Keswani, C. L. |year=1997 |title=Economics of biological control of Kariba weed (''Salvinia molesta'' Mitchell) at Tengwe in north-western Zimbabwe: a case study |journal=International Journal of Pest Management |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=109–112 |doi=10.1080/096708797228780 }}</ref>

Small, commercially-reared parasitoidal [[wasp]]s,<ref name=Cornell/> ''[[Trichogramma]] [[Trichogramma ostriniae|ostriniae]]'', provide limited and erratic control of the [[European corn borer]] (''Ostrinia nubilalis''), a serious pest. Careful formulations of the bacterium ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' are more effective. The O. nubilalis integrated control releasing  ''Tricogramma brassicae'' (egg parasitoid) and later ''Bacillus thuringiensis subs. kurstaki'' (larvicide effect) reduce pest damages more than insecticide treatments <ref>{{cite web|title=Featured Creatures. European corn borer |url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/field/e_corn_borer.htm |publisher=University of Florida IFAS |access-date=5 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530041733/http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/field/e_corn_borer.htm |archive-date=30 May 2016 }}</ref>

The population of ''[[Levuana iridescens]]'', the Levuana moth, a serious coconut pest in [[Fiji]], was brought under control by a classical biological control program in the 1920s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuris |first1=Armand M. |title=Did biological control cause extinction of the coconut moth, Levuana iridescens, in Fiji? |journal=Biological Invasions|date=March 2003 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=133–141 |doi=10.1023/A:1024015327707|bibcode=2003BiInv...5..133K |s2cid=26094065 }}</ref>