Editing Bias (section)

===Cognitive biases===
{{Main|Cognitive bias|List of cognitive biases}}
A cognitive bias is a repeating or basic misstep in thinking, assessing, recollecting, or other cognitive processes.<ref name=Chegg>{{cite web| title =Definition of Cognitive Bias | publisher =Chegg | url =http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/cognitive-bias-13 | access-date =1 September 2015 | url-status =live | archive-url =https://archive.today/20160509015823/http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/cognitive-bias-13 | archive-date =9 May 2016 }}</ref> That is, a pattern of deviation from standards in judgment, whereby inferences may be created unreasonably.<ref>{{cite book|last=Haselton, M. G. |author2=Nettle, D. |author3=Andrews, P. W. |name-list-style=amp|title=The evolution of cognitive bias.|year=2005|publisher=Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc|location=In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology|pages=724–746}}</ref> People create their own "subjective [[social reality]]" from their own perceptions,<ref>{{cite book|last=Bless, H. |author2=Fiedler, K. |author3=Strack, F. |name-list-style=amp |title=Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality.|year=2004|publisher=Hove and New York: Psychology Press|pages=2}}</ref> their view of the world may dictate their behaviour.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bless, H. |author2=Fiedler, K. |author3=Strack, F. |name-list-style=amp |title=Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality|year=2004|publisher=Hove and New York: Psychology Press}}</ref> Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called [[irrationality]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kahneman |first1=D. |last2=Tversky |first2=A. |year=1972 |title=Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness |journal=Cognitive Psychology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=430–454 |doi=10.1016/0010-0285(72)90016-3 }}</ref><ref>Baron, J. (2007). ''Thinking and Deciding'' (4th ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Ariely, D. (2008). ''[[Predictably Irrational]]: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions''. New York, NY: HarperCollins.</ref> However some cognitive biases are taken to be [[Adaptive behavior|adaptive]], and thus may lead to success in the appropriate situation.<ref>For instance: {{cite journal|author1=Gigerenzer, G.|author2=Goldstein, D. G.|name-list-style=amp|title=Reasoning the fast and frugal way: Models of bounded rationality|journal=Psychological Review|year=1996|volume=103|pages=650–669|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.650|pmid=8888650|issue=4|hdl=21.11116/0000-0000-B771-2 |url=http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/ft/gg/gg_reasoning_1996.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922235244/http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/ft/gg/gg_reasoning_1996.pdf|archive-date=2017-09-22|citeseerx=10.1.1.174.4404}}</ref> Furthermore, cognitive biases as an example through education may allow faster choice selection when speedier outcomes for a task are more valuable than precision.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tversky, A. |author2=Kahneman, D. |name-list-style=amp |title=Judgement under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases|journal=Science|year=1974|volume=185|pages=1124–1131|doi=10.1126/science.185.4157.1124|pmid=17835457|issue=4157|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD0767426|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924045349/http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/AD0767426|url-status=live|archive-date=September 24, 2017|bibcode=1974Sci...185.1124T |s2cid=143452957 }}</ref> Other cognitive biases are a "by-product" of human processing limitations,<ref name="Haselton, M. G., Nettle, D., & Andrews, P. W. 2005 724–746">{{cite book|last=Haselton, M. G. |author2=Nettle, D. |author3=Andrews, P. W. |name-list-style=amp |title=The evolution of cognitive bias|year=2005|publisher=Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.|location=In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology|pages=724–746}}</ref> coming about because of an [[bounded rationality|absence of appropriate mental mechanisms]], or just from human limitations in [[Information processing (psychology)|information processing]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bless, H. |author2=Fiedler, K. |author3=Strack, F. |name-list-style=amp |title=Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality.|year=2004|publisher=Hove and New York: Psychology Press.}}</ref>

====Anchoring====
{{Main|Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)|l1=Anchoring}}
Anchoring is a [[heuristics in judgment and decision making|psychological heuristic]] that describes the propensity to rely on the first piece of [[information]] encountered when [[decision making|making decisions]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Welsh|first1=Matthew B.|last2=Delfabbro|first2=Paul H.|last3=Burns|first3=Nicholas R.|last4=Begg|first4=Steve H.|date=2014|title=Individual differences in anchoring: Traits and experience|journal=Learning and Individual Differences|volume=29|pages=131–140|doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2013.01.002|issn=1041-6080}}</ref><ref name="ScienceDaily">{{cite web | title = Anchoring bias in decision-making | website = Science Daily | url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/anchoring.htm | access-date = September 29, 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150929180102/https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/anchoring.htm | archive-date = September 29, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Investopedia">{{cite web | title = Anchoring Definition | publisher = Investopedia | url = http://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/anchoring.asp | access-date = September 29, 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171023052312/http://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/anchoring.asp | archive-date = October 23, 2017 }}</ref> According to this [[heuristic]], individuals begin with an implicitly suggested reference point (the "anchor") and make adjustments to it to reach their estimate.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> For example, the initial price offered for a [[used car]] sets the standard for the rest of the [[negotiation]]s, so that [[price]]s lower than the initial price seem more reasonable even if they are still higher than what the car is worth.<ref name="TverskyKahneman1974">{{cite journal|last1=Tversky|first1=A.|last2=Kahneman|first2=D.|title=Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases|journal=Science|volume=185|issue=4157|year=1974|pages=1124–1131|doi=10.1126/science.185.4157.1124|url=http://www.hss.caltech.edu/~camerer/Ec101/JudgementUncertainty.pdf|pmid=17835457|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817144047/http://www.hss.caltech.edu/%7Ecamerer/Ec101/JudgementUncertainty.pdf|archive-date=2014-08-17|bibcode=1974Sci...185.1124T|s2cid=143452957}}</ref><ref>Edward Teach, "[http://www.cfo.com/article.cfm/3014027 Avoiding Decision Traps] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614061542/http://www.cfo.com/article.cfm/3014027 |date=2013-06-14 }}", [[CFO (magazine)|''CFO'']] (1 June 2004). Retrieved 29 May 2007.</ref>

====Apophenia====
{{Main|Apophenia|Pareidolia}}{{See also|Hindsight bias}}
Apophenia, also known as patternicity,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shermer |first=Michael |title=Patternicity: Finding Meaningful Patterns in Meaningless Noise |journal=Scientific American |volume=299 |issue=6 |pages=48 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1208-48 |pmid=19143444 |year=2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=GrrlScientist |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/punctuated-equilibrium/2010/sep/25/michael-shermer-belief-self-deception |title=Michael Shermer: The pattern behind self-deception |newspaper=Guardian |date=29 September 2010 |access-date=2011-06-29 |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926040551/http://www.theguardian.com/science/punctuated-equilibrium/2010/sep/25/michael-shermer-belief-self-deception |archive-date=26 September 2015 }}</ref> or agenticity,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQO4y2bueAM|title=Why Do We Need a Belief in God with Michael Shermer|website=[[YouTube]] |date=2011-08-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314224302/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQO4y2bueAM|archive-date=2016-03-14}}</ref> is the human tendency to perceive meaningful patterns within [[Randomness|random]] data. Apophenia is well documented as a [[Rationalization (making excuses)|rationalization]] for gambling. Gamblers may imagine that they see patterns in the numbers which appear in [[Lottery|lotteries]], [[card game]]s, or [[roulette wheel]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://waterstone.wordpress.com/2007/05/24/apophenia-illusory-correlation/ |title=Apophenia & Illusory Correlation « Paul Xavier Waterstone |publisher=Waterstone.wordpress.com |date=2007-05-24 |access-date=2011-06-29 |archive-date=2014-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217012242/http://waterstone.wordpress.com/2007/05/24/apophenia-illusory-correlation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> One manifestation of this is known as the "[[gambler's fallacy]]".

Pareidolia is the visual or auditory form of apophenia. It has been suggested that pareidolia combined with [[hierophany]] may have helped ancient societies organize chaos and make the world intelligible.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rupestreweb.info/china.html |last1=Bustamante |first1=Patricio |last2=Yao |first2=Fay |last3=Bustamante |first3=Daniela |year=2010 |title=The worship to the mountains: a study of the creation myths of the chinese culture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924092744/http://www.rupestreweb.info/china.html |archive-date=2015-09-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bustamante |first1=Patricio |last2=Yao |first2=Fay |last3=Bustamante |first3=Daniela |year=2010 |title=Search for meanings: from pleistocene art to the worship of the mountains in early China. Methodological tools for Mimesis |url=http://www.rupestreweb.info/mimesis.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093315/http://www.rupestreweb.info/mimesis.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>

====Attribution bias====
{{Main|Attribution bias}}
An attribution bias can happen when individuals assess or attempt to discover explanations behind their own and others' behaviors.<ref name="Heider">Heider, F. (1958). "The psychology of interpersonal relations", New York: Wiley, 322 p.</ref><ref name="Kelley 1967">Kelley, H.H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.) ''Nebraska Symposium on Motivation'', Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Abramson | first1 = L.Y. | last2 = Seligman | first2 = M.E. | last3 = Teasdale | first3 = J.D. | year = 1978 | title = Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 87 | issue = 1| pages = 49–74 | doi = 10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49 | pmid=649856| s2cid = 2845204 }}</ref> People make [[attribution (psychology)|attributions]] about the causes of their own and others' behaviors; but these attributions do not necessarily precisely reflect reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, individuals are inclined to perceptual slips that prompt biased understandings of their social world.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Funder | first1 = D.C. | year = 1987 | title = Errors and mistakes: Evaluating the accuracy of social judgment | url = http://psy.ucsd.edu/%7Emckenzie/FunderPsychBull1987.pdf | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 101 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–90 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.75 | pmid = 3562704 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080516210858/http://psy.ucsd.edu/~mckenzie/FunderPsychBull1987.pdf | archive-date = 2008-05-16 }}</ref><ref name="Nisbett and Ross 1980">Nisbett, R.E. & Ross, L. (1980). ''Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment'', Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref> When judging others we tend to assume their actions are the result of internal factors such as [[personality]], whereas we tend to assume our own actions arise because of the necessity of external circumstances. There are a wide range of [[Attribution bias#List of attribution biases|sorts]] of attribution biases, such as the [[ultimate attribution error]], [[fundamental attribution error]], [[actor-observer bias]], and [[self-serving bias]].

Examples of attribution bias:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://grabien.com/file.php?id=582443|title=Rewind: Watch the Media Spend Two Years Hyping a Now-Debunked Story|website=Grabien |access-date=29 March 2019|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329085906/https://grabien.com/file.php?id=582443|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Confirmation bias====
[[File:Fred Barnard07.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=A drawing of a man sitting on a stool at a writing desk|Confirmation bias has been described as an internal "[[Wikt:yes man|yes man]]", echoing back a person's beliefs like [[Charles Dickens]]' character [[Uriah Heep (character)|Uriah Heep]].<ref name="WSJ">{{cite news |title=How to Ignore the Yes-Man in Your Head |first=Jason |last=Zweig |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=November 19, 2009 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703811604574533680037778184 |access-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214052645/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703811604574533680037778184 |archive-date=February 14, 2015 }}</ref>]]

{{Main|Confirmation bias}}

Confirmation bias is the tendency to [[Research|search for]], [[Evaluation|interpret]], favor, and [[recall (memory)|recall]] information in a way that confirms one's [[belief]]s or [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] while giving disproportionately less attention to information that contradicts it.<ref>{{cite book | last=Plous | first=Scott | title=The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making | url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyjudgme00plou_528 | url-access=limited | pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyjudgme00plou_528/page/n201 233] | date=1993| publisher=McGraw-Hill Education | isbn=9780070504776 }}</ref> The effect is stronger for [[emotion]]ally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs. People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position. Biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain [[attitude polarization]] (when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence), [[Confirmation bias#Persistence of discredited beliefs|belief perseverance]] (when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false), the irrational primacy effect (a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series) and [[illusory correlation]] (when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations). Confirmation biases contribute to [[overconfidence effect|overconfidence]] in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Poor [[decision making|decisions]] due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts.<ref name=cbiaspolitics>{{cite journal|last=Nickerson|first=Raymond S.|title=Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises|journal=Review of General Psychology|date=June 1998|volume=2|issue=2|pages=175–220|doi=10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175|s2cid=8508954}}</ref><ref>[[Barbara W. Tuchman|Tuchman, Barbara]] (1984). ''The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam''. New York: Knopf.</ref>

====Framing====
{{anchor|Cultural bias}} {{Main|Cultural bias|Framing (social sciences)}}
Framing involves the [[social construction]] of [[social phenomenon|social phenomena]] by [[mass media]] sources, [[Ideology|political or social movements]], [[Politician|political leaders]], and so on. It is an influence over how people organize, perceive, and communicate about [[reality]].<ref name="Druckman2001">{{cite journal |last1=Druckman |first1=J.N. |year=2001 |title=The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competence |journal=Political Behavior |volume=23 |issue=3|pages=225–256 |doi=10.1023/A:1015006907312|s2cid=10584001 }}</ref> It can be positive or negative, depending on the audience and what kind of information is being presented. For political purposes, framing often presents facts in such a way that implicates a problem that is in need of a solution. Members of political parties attempt to frame issues in a way that makes a solution favoring their own political leaning appear as the most appropriate course of action for the situation at hand.<ref name="van der Pas">{{cite journal|last=van der Pas|first=D.|title=Making Hay While the Sun Shines: Do Parties Only Respond to Media Attention When The Framing is Right?|journal=Journal of Press/Politics|year=2014|volume=19|issue=1|pages=42–65|doi=10.1177/1940161213508207|s2cid=220652512 }}<!--|access-date=6 March 2014--></ref> As understood in [[social theory]], framing is a [[Schema (psychology)|schema]] of [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]], a collection of [[Anecdotal evidence|anecdotes]] and [[stereotype]]s, that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events.<ref name="Goffman1974">Goffman, E. (1974). ''Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> People use filters to make sense of the world, the choices they then make are influenced by their creation of a frame.

Cultural bias is the related phenomenon of interpreting and judging phenomena by standards inherent to one's own culture. Numerous such biases exist, concerning cultural norms for color, location of body parts, [[mate selection]], concepts of [[justice]], [[linguistics|linguistic]] and [[logic]]al validity, acceptability of [[evidence]], and [[taboo]]s. Ordinary people may tend to imagine other people as basically the same, not significantly more or less valuable, probably attached emotionally to different groups and different land.

====Halo effect and horn effect====
{{Main|Halo effect|Horn effect}}
The halo effect and the horn effect are when an [[Observation|observer's]] overall impression of a person, [[organization]], [[brand]], or [[product (business)|product]] influences their feelings about specifics of that entity's character or properties.<ref name="study.com">{{cite web | last = Long-Crowell | first = Erin | title = The Halo Effect: Definition, Advantages & Disadvantages | work = Psychology 104: Social Psychology | publisher = study.com | url = http://study.com/academy/lesson/the-halo-effect-definition-advantages-disadvantages.html | access-date = September 30, 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151001041235/http://study.com/academy/lesson/the-halo-effect-definition-advantages-disadvantages.html | archive-date = October 1, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Investopedia halo">{{cite web | title = Halo Effect | publisher = Investopedia | url = http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/halo-effect.asp | access-date = September 30, 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171106034111/http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/halo-effect.asp | archive-date = November 6, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Thorndike | first = EL | title = A constant error in psychological ratings | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | year = 1920 | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 25–29 | doi = 10.1037/h0071663 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429134 | access-date = 2019-12-20 | archive-date = 2019-07-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190713184358/https://zenodo.org/record/1429134 | url-status = live }}</ref>

The name halo effect is based on the concept of the [[Halo (religious iconography)|saint's halo]], and is a specific type of [[confirmation bias]], wherein positive sentiments in one area cause questionable or unknown characteristics to be seen positively. If the observer likes one aspect of something, they will have a positive predisposition toward everything about it.<ref>{{cite dictionary | title = Horns and halo effect | dictionary = The Free Dictionary | url = http://www.thefreedictionary.com/horns+and+halo+effect | access-date = September 30, 2015}}</ref><ref name=nisbett>{{cite journal | last1 = Nisbett | first1 = Richard E | last2 = Wilson | first2 = Timothy D | year= 1977 |title= The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments |journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume =35 |issue=4 |pages=250–56 |issn=1939-1315 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.35.4.250|url= https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/92158/1/TheHaloEffect.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/92158/1/TheHaloEffect.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | hdl = 2027.42/92158 | s2cid = 17867385 |hdl-access= free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Glennie|first=Jonathan|title=Hugo Chávez's reverse-halo effect|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/03/hugo-chavez-reverso-halo-effect|newspaper=The Guardian|date=3 May 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816022229/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/03/hugo-chavez-reverso-halo-effect|archive-date=16 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="ostrove_sigall1975">{{cite journal| last1 = Ostrove| first1 = Nancy| last2 = Sigall| first2 = Harold| title = Beautiful but Dangerous: Effects of Offender Attractiveness and Nature of the Crime on Juridic Judgment| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology| year = 1975| volume = 31| issue = 3| pages = 410–14| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232451231| doi = 10.1037/h0076472| url-status = live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160701005930/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232451231_Beautiful_but_Dangerous_Effects_of_Offender_Attractiveness_and_Nature_of_the_Crime_on_Juridic_Judgment| archive-date = 2016-07-01}}</ref> A person's [[Physical attractiveness|appearance]] has been found to produce a halo effect.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1023/A:1023582629538|title=Weight Halo Effects: Individual Differences in Perceived Life Success as a Function of Women's Race and Weight|year= 2003|last1= Wade | first1 = T Joel|last2=DiMaria|first2=Cristina |journal=Sex Roles|volume=48|issue=9/10|pages=461–465|s2cid=141143275}}</ref> The halo effect is also present in the field of [[brand marketing]], affecting perception of [[company|companies]] and [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs).<ref>{{cite news|title=Apple shares surfs on big profits|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4172211.stm|access-date=18 January 2012|newspaper=BBC News|date=13 January 2005|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061118053436/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4172211.stm|archive-date=18 November 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chandon |first1 = Pierre| first2 = Brian | last2 = Wansink| title= The Biasing Health Halos of Fast-Food Restaurant Health Claims: Lower Calorie Estimate and Higher Side-Dish Consumption Intentions | journal = Journal of Consumer Research|year=2007|volume=34|issue=3|pages=301–14|doi= 10.1086/519499|citeseerx = 10.1.1.173.2288|s2cid = 3881018}}<!--|access-date = --></ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Jeffray|first=Nathan|title=Interview: Gerald Steinberg|url=http://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/33415/interview-gerald-steinberg|newspaper=The Jewish Chronicle|date=24 June 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701192611/http://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/33415/interview-gerald-steinberg|archive-date=1 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Balanson| first = Naftali | title= The 'halo effect' shields NGOs from media scrutiny|url= http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=110648 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=8 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ronaldhousedurham.org/page/corporate-donors|last= Jones|first= Nancy|title= Corporate Donors|publisher= Ronald House Durham|access-date= 26 November 2013|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131203013311/http://www.ronaldhousedurham.org/page/corporate-donors|archive-date= 3 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 =Coombs|first1 =Timothy W | last2 = Holladay | first2 =Sherry J|title=Unpacking the halo effect: reputation and crisis management|journal=Journal of Communication Management|year=2006|volume=10|issue= 2|pages = 123–37 |doi=10.1108/13632540610664698}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 =Klein|first1 =Jill| first2 = Niraj | last2 = Dawar|title= Evaluations in a Product-Harm Crisis| journal= International Journal of Research in Marketing | year= 2004|volume=21|issue=3|pages=203–17|doi=10.1016/j.ijresmar.2003.12.003}}</ref>

The opposite of the halo is the horn effect, when "individuals believe (that negative) traits are inter-connected."<ref name="JoshKennon">{{Cite web|url=https://www.joshuakennon.com/mental-model-horns-effect-and-halo-effect|title=Mental Model: Horns Effect and Halo Effect|website=www.joshuakennon.com|date=12 November 2011 |language=en-US|access-date=2017-09-08|archive-date=2018-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213158/https://www.joshuakennon.com/mental-model-horns-effect-and-halo-effect/|url-status=live}}</ref> The term horn effect refers to [[Sign of the horns|Devil's horns]].{{Citation needed|reason=[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not a reliable source]]|date=August 2018}} It works in a negative direction: if the observer dislikes one aspect of something, they will have a negative predisposition towards other aspects.<ref name="Attitudes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rightattitudes.com/2010/04/30/rating-errors-halo-effect-horns-effect/|title=The Halo and Horns Effects [Rating Errors]|date=2010-05-01|website=Right Attitudes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823114921/http://www.rightattitudes.com/2010/04/30/rating-errors-halo-effect-horns-effect/|archive-date=2017-08-23|url-status=live|access-date=2017-09-08}}</ref>

====Self-serving bias====
{{Main|Self-serving bias}}
Self-serving bias is the tendency for [[cognition|cognitive]] or [[perception|perceptual]] processes to be [[Cognitive distortion|distorted]] by the individual's need to maintain and enhance [[self-esteem]].<ref>Myers, D.G. (2015). ''Exploring Social Psychology'', 7th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill Education.</ref> It is the propensity to credit accomplishment to our own capacities and endeavors, yet attribute failure to outside factors,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Campbell | first1 = W.K. | last2 = Sedikides | first2 = C. | year = 1999 | title = Self-threat magnifies the self-serving bias: A meta-analytic integration | journal = Review of General Psychology | volume = 3 | pages = 23–43 | doi=10.1037/1089-2680.3.1.23| s2cid = 144756539 }}</ref> to dismiss the legitimacy of negative criticism, concentrate on positive qualities and accomplishments yet disregard flaws and failures. Studies have demonstrated that this bias can affect [[Human behavior|behavior]] in the [[Job|workplace]],<ref name=Pal>{{cite journal|last=Pal|first=G.C.|title=Is there a universal self-serving attribution bias?|journal=Psychological Studies|year=2007|volume=52|issue=1|pages=85–89}}</ref> in [[interpersonal relationships]],<ref name="Campbell et al.">{{cite journal|last=Campbell|first=W. Keith |author2=Sedikides, Constantine |author3=Reeder, Glenn D. |author4=Elliot, Andrew J.|title=Among friends? An examination of friendship and the self-serving bias|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology|year=2000|volume=39|issue=2|pages=229–239|doi=10.1348/014466600164444|pmid=10907097 |citeseerx=10.1.1.559.7984 }}</ref> playing [[sport]]s,<ref name=DeMichele>{{cite journal|last=De Michele|first=P.|author2=Gansneder, B. |author3=Solomon, G. |title=Success and failure attributions of wrestlers: Further Evidence of the Self-Serving Bias|journal=Journal of Sport Behavior|year=1998|volume=21|issue=3|pages=242}}</ref> and in [[Consumer behaviour|consumer decisions]].<ref name=Moon>{{cite journal|last=Moon|first=Youngme|title=Don't Blame the Computer: When Self-Disclosure Moderates the Self-Serving Bias|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|year=2003|volume=13|issue=1|pages=125–137|doi=10.1207/153276603768344843}}</ref>

====Status quo bias====
{{Main|Status quo bias}}
Status quo bias is an [[emotional bias]]; a preference for the current state of affairs. The current baseline (or status quo) is taken as a reference point, and any change from that baseline is perceived as a loss.
Status quo bias should be distinguished from a rational preference for the [[status quo]] ante, as when the current state of affairs is objectively superior to the available alternatives, or when imperfect information is a significant problem. A large body of evidence, however, shows that status quo bias frequently affects human decision-making.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Samuelson|first1=William|last2=Zeckhauser|first2=Richard|date=1988|title=Status quo bias in decision making|journal=Journal of Risk and Uncertainty|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=7–59|doi=10.1007/bf00055564|issn=0895-5646|citeseerx=10.1.1.632.3193|s2cid=5641133}}</ref>