Editing Bessus (section)

== Reign ==
[[Image:Khalili Collection Aramaic Documents IA21.jpg|thumb|List of supplies for Bessus, November–December 330 BC, from a collection of Achaemenid administrative documents]]
In the autumn of 330, at the Bactrian capital of [[Balkh|Bactra]], Bessus declared himself King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, assuming the royal name of Artaxerxes V.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1989|pp=174–175}} There he attempted to hold the eastern part of the empire against Alexander.{{sfn|Kuhrt|Sancisi-Weerdenburg|2006}} His domain encompassed Bactria, the main center; Sogdia, administered by officers such as [[Spitamenes]] and [[Oxyartes]]; the nomadic Iranian tribes of Central Asia; [[Aria (region)|Aria]], governed by the satrap [[Satibarzanes]], who had initially surrendered to Alexander; Arachosia-Drangiana, governed by Barsaentes; Parthia and Hyrcania, governed by Nabarazanes following his appointment by Bessus; and western India.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1989|pp=174–175}}{{sfn|Heckel|2006|p=171}} Bessus' usurpation and the invigorated resistance in Central Asia created a new problem for the Macedonians. If they failed to confront Bessus, his usurpation could be seen as change in government, thus rendering Darius III's death irrelevant.{{sfn|Heckel|2020|p=171}} However, Bessus' empire quickly started to fall apart; Nabarzanes, accepting his hopeless position, surrendered to Alexander and was pardoned with the help of [[Bagoas (courtier)|Bagoas]].{{sfn|Heckel|2006|p=171}}{{sfn|Heckel|2020|p=167}} Satibarzanes was defeated and killed by the Macedonian forces in 329 BC, before Bessus was able to help him.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1989|pp=174–175}}{{sfn|Heckel|2006|p=72}} Around the same time, Barsaentes fled to India to escape the Macedonian forces.{{sfn|Heckel|2006|p=69}}

According to the 1st-century BC Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] (died 30 BC), Bessus had plans to defend Bactria, and urged its inhabitants to fight for their independence. He was able to muster a satrapal levy of 8,000 Bactrians, seemingly the remnants of the troops that had fought under him at Gaugamela. However, many of those soldiers dispersed after receiving news that Alexander had crossed the [[Hindu Kush]]. Instead of making a stand, Bessus fled into Sogdia by crossing the [[Oxus]], where he hoped to obtain aid from the Sogdians, the [[Chorasmia]]ns, and the "[[Scythians]] dwelling beyond the river [[Don (river)|Tanais]]".{{sfn|Heckel|2020|p=175 (see also note 19)}}{{sfn|Stark|2021|p=702}} His flight from Bactria alienated many of his Bactrian supporters.{{sfn|Heckel|2020|p=176}} The [[Canadians|Canadian]] historian [[Waldemar Heckel]] suggests that Bessus may have in reality not been particularly popular, and adds that his most prominent supporters had either been killed or fled. The [[hyparch]]s and local dynasts of Bactria-Sogdiana now realized that they were isolated, and so a victory – at least a great one – was unlikely.{{sfn|Heckel|2020|p=176}} 
[[File:The punishment of Bessus by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg|thumb|''The Punishment of Bessus'' ([[André Castaigne]], 1899)]]
Alexander, since his victory at Gaugamela, had behaved in the same manner as a sovereign ruler, and had been on several occasions afterwards acknowledged as the "King of Asia." His actions indicated that he planned to continue the administrative system of the Achaemenid Empire, which meant that the local leaders in Central Asia would be allowed to maintain their authority. Furthermore, Alexander had not only pardoned many of his former opponents, but had also restored them to their former satrapies. Thus, the indigenous rulers now regarded Bessus as being a threat to their continued security.{{sfn|Heckel|2020|pp=176–177}} At Nautaca (present-day [[Shahrisabz]]) Bessus was arrested by his Sogdian officers, who included Spitamenes, Dataphernes, and Catanes. They then handed him over to the following Macedonian forces.{{sfn|Heckel|2006|p=72}}{{sfn|Stark|2021|p=702}} The handing over of Bessus took place in a village, where he had been left by Spitamenes and Dataphernes. He was picked up by the Macedonian general [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] who following Alexander's instructions, had Bessus brought to him naked in bonds.{{sfn|Heckel|2020|pp=177–178}} Bessus was at first [[Flagellation|flogged]] in public, and then his ears and nose were cut off, a traditional Persian punishment. He was finally sent to Ecbatana, where the Macedonians had him executed.{{sfn|Heckel|2020|p=178}} The execution was supervised by Darius III's brother [[Oxyathres of Persia|Oxyathres]].{{sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=479}}