Editing Battle of Bannockburn (section)

==Battle==
===Location of the battlefield===

The exact site of both days of the battle has been debated for many years,<ref name=Battlefield>{{Canmore |num=47243 |desc=Battle of Bannockburn|access-date=2009-04-02}}</ref> but most modern historians agree that the traditional site for the first day,<ref>{{cite web|title=OS 25-inch map 1892–1949, with Bing opacity slider|url=http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&lat=56.0959&lon=-3.9477&layers=168&b=1|website=National Library of Scotland|publisher=Ordnance Survey|access-date=12 October 2017|archive-date=30 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130162106/http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&lat=56.0959&lon=-3.9477&layers=168&b=1|url-status=live}}</ref> where a visitor centre and statue have been erected, is not correct.<ref name="mackenzie">{{Cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=W. M. |title=The Battle of Bannockburn: a Study in Mediaeval Warfare |publisher=James MacLehose |year=1913 |location=[[Glasgow]] |language=en |author-link=William Mackay Mackenzie}}</ref>

A large number of alternative locations for the second day have been considered, but modern researchers believe only two merit serious consideration:<ref name="barrow">Barrow, Geoffrey W.S. (1998). ''Robert Bruce & The Community of The Realm of Scotland''. [[Edinburgh University Press]] {{ISBN|0852246048}}</ref>
* An area of  ground to the south of Balquhiderock Wood, known as the Dryfield, about {{convert|0.75|mi|1}} east of the traditional site.<ref name="barron">Barron, E.M., ''The Scottish War of Independence: a Critical Study'', 1934</ref>
* The Carse of Balquhiderock (to the north of the wood), known as the Wetfield, about {{convert|1.5|mi}} north-east of the traditional site. This location is accepted by the [[National Trust for Scotland|National Trust]] as the most likely site.<ref name="christison">[[Philip Christison|Christison, Philip]], ''Bannockburn: The Story of the Battle'', 1960, Edinburgh: [[National Trust for Scotland]]</ref>
It is likely that wherever the fighting began it ended on the Carse.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

=== Importance ===
This battle was an attempt by Robert the Bruce to legitimise his kingship through combat. An article by Medieval Warfare states, "Robert Bruce, King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329 aged around 55, was no stranger to the battlefield. He waged war to wear down his Scottish opponents and the English regime in Scotland, culminating in the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, to legitimise his kingship and free his kingdom."<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title=The faces of Robert the Bruce |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578072 |journal=Medieval Warfare |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=4–5 |jstor=48578072 |issn=2211-5129 |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502062249/https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578072 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was a battle that Robert the Bruce hoped would confirm his place on the throne of Scotland and force Edward II to recognize him King. Bruce also faced internal struggles for the crown of Scotland among the "Balliols, Bruces, and the Scottish political nation in a decades-long contest for the crown."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cramsie |first=John |date=2011-06-01 |title='Bannockburn: The Triumph of Robert the Bruce'. By David Cornell. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009. pp. 320.) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6563.2011.00294_47.x |journal=The Historian |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=378–379 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.2011.00294_47.x |s2cid=142588139 |issn=0018-2370}}</ref>  As stated by W. M. Mackenzie, "The victory at Bannockburn is of more than national interest and had other results than those immediately affecting Scotland. With Falkirk and Courtrai (1302), where the flemish footman shattered the chivalry of France—and more than either of these it initiated the change which was to come over the mediaeval art of war, in demonstrating the superiority of infantry properly handled to the mounted [[men-at-arms]] upon whom the entire stress of fighting had hitherto been laid. The defeated were quick to learn their lesson and apply it in their own way.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MacKenzie |first=W. M. |date=1910 |title=The Real Bannockburn, June 23–24, 1314 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44897746 |journal=Transactions of the Glasgow Archaeological Society |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=80–102 |jstor=44897746 |issn=2398-5755 |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502062251/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44897746 |url-status=live }}</ref> This shows the sheer importance of the Scottish spearman on the European stage as many countries began to adapt to this infantry dominated medieval battleground. They were moving away from cavalry and more towards the domination of the foot soldier. Another aspect is that this battle was for the rights to Stirling Castle essentially. Robert the Bruce did not want to give the castle up to the English as it was a major staging point. This is supported by Herbert Maxwell who stated that "Bruce's position was taken up to bar King Edwards access to Stirling."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maxwell |first=Herbert |author-link=Sir Herbert Maxwell, 7th Baronet |date=1914 |title=The Battle of Bannockburn |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25518682 |journal=The Scottish Historical Review |volume=11 |issue=43 |pages=233–251 |issn=0036-9241 |jstor=25518682 |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502165801/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25518682 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===First day of battle===
[[File:Mapbannockburn1.svg|thumb|right|300px|An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn – first day]]
Most medieval battles were short-lived, lasting only a few hours, so the Battle of Bannockburn is unusual in that it lasted two days.<ref name="Black"/> Shortly before the battle, King Robert picked a flat field flanked by woodland known as New Park to set up camp for the upcoming battle. This was because the woodland gave Bruce and his foot soldiers an advantage since the English were very adept at cavalry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=Thomas |date=1914 |title=The Site of the New Park in Relation to the Battle of Bannockburn |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25518759 |journal=The Scottish Historical Review |volume=12 |issue=45 |pages=60–75 |jstor=25518759 |issn=0036-9241 |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503014842/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25518759 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Scots split their army into four divisions and the Bruce commanded the four divisions to form a diamond formation. Bruce covered the rear to the south, Douglas to the east, Randolph to the north (the direction of Stirling), with 500 horsemen under Keith to the west, in reserve.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Rees |first=Owen |date=2014 |title=Claim to the Throne |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578352 |journal=Medieval Warfare |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=26–33 |jstor=48578352  |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406220503/https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578352 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 23 June 1314, two English cavalry formations advanced. The first was commanded by the [[Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester|Earl of Gloucester]] and by the [[Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford|Earl of Hereford]].<ref name="Black"/> They followed behind a smaller detachment of roughly 300 soldiers led by Sir [[Robert Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford|Robert Clifford]] and Sir [[Henry de Beaumont]] who marched closer to the River Forth.<ref name=":12"/> Both of these detachments marched in front of the main fighting force. These two detachments were tasked with lifting the siege on Stirling.<ref name=":12"/> The Hereford-Gloucester force was the first to cross over the Bannockburn and marched toward the woodlands that hid the Scots and stood in the way of the English on their way to Stirling. Little did the English know that Bruce had ventured ahead away from his natural protection. King Robert was not then fully armed for combat, but was instead armed for [[reconnaissance]] with only a small horse, light armour, and a [[battle axe]] to defend himself.<ref name=":12"/> The Earl of Hereford's nephew [[Henry de Bohun]] spotted the king so poorly equipped and took advantage. Henry de Bohun charged forward in full combat gear with his [[lance]], encountering Bruce's troops.<ref name="Black"/> Bruce and de Bohun faced off in what became a celebrated instance of [[single combat]].<ref name="Black"/> Bohun charged at Bruce and, when the two passed side by side, Bruce split Bohun's head with his axe.<ref name="Black"/><ref>[[Ann Hyland|Hyland, Ann]]. ''The Warhorse 1250–1600'', UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998, p. 38</ref> However the Vita Edwardi Secundi gives a different account:

{{blockquote|'On Sunday, which was the vigil of St John's day, as they [the English] passed by a certain wood and were approaching Stirling Castle, the Scots were seen straggling under the trees as if in flight, and a certain knight, Henry de Boune pursued them with the Welsh to the entrance of the wood. For he had in mind that if he found Robert Bruce there he would either kill him or carry him off captive. But when he had come thither, Robert himself came suddenly out of his hiding-place in the wood, and the said Henry seeing that he could not resist the multitude of Scots, turned his horse with the intention of regaining his companions; but Robert opposed him and struck him on the head with an axe that he carried in his hand.
His squire, trying to protect or rescue his lord, was overwhelmed by the Scots.'<ref>[W. R. Childs, ed. (2005). Vita Edwardi Secundi. Clarendon Press. pp. xxiv–xxv. {{ISBN|0-19-927594-7}}.</ref>}}

The Scots then rushed the English forces under Gloucester's and Hereford's command, who retreated, struggling back over the Bannockburn.<ref>[http://www.britishbattles.com/scottish/battle-bannockburn.htm The Battle of Bannockburn] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605001056/http://www.britishbattles.com/scottish/battle-bannockburn.htm |date=5 June 2014 }} britishbattles.com. Retrieved 14 June 2014.</ref>

This story is important because it was a reflection of Robert the Bruce's leadership. It is stated in an article by Sidney Dean that "While controversial among his peers, Bruce earned the respect of his soldiers by leading from the front and displaying physical courage."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dean |first=Sidney |date=2016 |title=Scottish profiles in leadership: William Wallace and Robert the Bruce |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578559 |journal=Medieval Warfare |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=51–55 |jstor=48578559 |issn=2211-5129 |access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419154838/https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578559 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The second English cavalry force was commanded by Robert Clifford and Henry de Beaumont. Their forces included Sir [[Thomas Grey (of Heaton)|Thomas de Grey of Heaton]], father of the chronicler [[Thomas Grey (chronicler)|Thomas Grey]]. The younger Grey described the battle:<section begin="Beaumont-vs-Grey"/>{{Blockquote|Robert Lord de Clifford and Henry de Beaumont, with three hundred [[men-at-arms]], made a circuit upon the other side of the wood towards the castle, keeping the open ground. [[Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray]], King Robert's nephew, who was the leader of the Scottish advanced guard, hearing that his uncle had repulsed the advanced guard of the English on the other side of the wood, thought that he must have his share, and issuing from the wood with his division marched across the open ground towards the two afore-named lords.

Sir Henry de Beaumont called to his men: "Let us wait a little; let them come on; give them room".

"Sir," said Sir Thomas Gray, "I doubt that whatever you give them now, they will have all too soon".

"Very well" exclaimed the said Henry, "if you are afraid, be off".

"Sir," answered the said Thomas, "it is not from fear that I shall fly this day."

So saying, he spurred in between Beaumont and Sir William Deyncourt and charged into the thick of the enemy. William was killed, Thomas was taken prisoner, his horse being killed on the pikes, and he himself carried off with the Scots on foot when they marched off, having utterly routed the squadron of the said two lords. Some of the English fled to the castle, others to the king's army, which having already left the road through the wood had debouched upon a plain near the water of Forth beyond Bannockburn, an evil, deep, wet marsh, where the said English army unharnessed and remained all night, having sadly lost confidence and being too much disaffected by the events of the day.|Sir Thomas Grey|''Scalacronica'', translated by [[Herbert Maxwell]]<ref name="Maxwell">{{harvnb|Maxwell|1907}}</ref>}}
<section end=Beaumont-vs-Grey/>

===Second day of battle===
[[File:Mapbannockburn1.2.svg|thumb|right|300px|An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn – second day]]
During the night, the English forces crossed the stream known as the Bannockburn, establishing their position on the plain beyond it.<ref name="Black"/> A Scottish knight, [[Alexander Seton (Governor of Berwick)|Alexander Seton]], who was fighting in the service of Edward II of England, deserted the English camp and told Bruce that English morale was low and encouraged him to attack.<ref name="Black"/>

In the morning, the Scots advanced from New Park.<ref name="Black"/> Not long after daybreak, Edward was surprised to see the Scottish pikemen emerge from the cover of the woods and advance towards his position. As Bruce's army drew nearer, they paused and knelt in prayer. Edward reportedly said in surprise, "They pray for mercy!" "For mercy, yes," one of his attendants replied, "but from God, not you. These men will conquer or die."<ref name="Scott158">{{harvnb|Scott|1982|p=158}}</ref>

The Earl of Gloucester had argued with the Earl of Hereford over who should lead the vanguard into battle. He had also tried to persuade the king that the battle should be postponed. This led the king to accuse him of cowardice. Goaded by the accusation, Gloucester advanced to meet the Scots.<ref name="Black"/> Few accompanied Gloucester and, when he reached the Scottish lines, he was quickly surrounded and killed.<ref name="Black"/>

The English were gradually pushed back and ground down by the Scots' [[schiltron]]s.<ref name="Black"/> The English longbowmen attempted to support the advance of the knights, but were ordered to stop shooting to avoid additional [[friendly fire]]. The English then attempted to deploy their English and Welsh longbowmen to flank the advancing Scots, but they were dispersed by 500 Scottish cavalry under the [[Earl Marischal|marischal]] [[Robert II Keith, Marischal of Scotland|Sir Robert Keith]].<ref name="Scott">{{harvnb|Scott|1982}}</ref> (Although the Scottish cavalry is sometimes described as light cavalry, this appears to be a misinterpretation of Barbour's statement that these were men-at-arms on lighter horses than those of their English counterparts.<ref>Brown, C. (2008) pp. 129–130</ref>)

The English cavalry was hemmed in against the Bannockburn, making it difficult for them to manoeuvre.<ref name="Black"/> Unable to hold their formations, they broke rank.<ref name="Black"/> It soon became clear to [[Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Aymer de Valence]] and [[Giles d'Argentan]] (reputedly the third-best knight in Europe) that the English had lost the battle and Edward II needed at all costs to be led to safety. Seizing the reins of the king's horse, they dragged him away, closely followed by 500 knights of the royal bodyguard.<ref name="Scott159">{{harvnb|Scott|1982|p=159}}</ref>

Once they were clear of the battle, d'Argentan turned to the king and said: "''Sire, your protection was committed to me, but since you are safely on your way, I will bid you farewell for never yet have I fled from a battle, nor will I now.''" He turned his horse to charge back into the ranks of Scottish, where he was overborne and slain.<ref name="Scott160">{{harvnb|Scott|1982|p=160}}</ref>

===English retreat===
Edward fled with his personal bodyguard and panic spread among the remaining troops, turning their defeat into a [[rout]]. King Edward, with about 500 men, first fled for Stirling Castle where Sir Philip de Moubray, commander of the castle, turned him away as the castle would shortly be surrendered to the Scots.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barrow |first=Geoffrey W.S. |title=Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland |date=1988 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |page=230 |author-link=G. W. S. Barrow}}</ref> Then, pursued by James Douglas and a small troop of horsemen, Edward fled to [[Dunbar Castle]], from which he took a ship to Berwick. From the carnage of Bannockburn, the rest of the army tried to escape to the safety of the English border, {{convert|90|mi}} south. Many were killed by the pursuing Scottish army or by the inhabitants of the countryside they passed through.

Historian Peter Reese wrote that "only one sizeable group of men—all foot soldiers—made good their escape to England."<ref name="Reese1"/> These were a force of Welsh spearmen who were kept together by their commander, Sir [[Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley|Maurice de Berkeley]]. The majority of them reached [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]].<ref name="Reese1"/> Weighing the available evidence, Reese concludes that "it seems doubtful if even a third of the foot soldiers returned to England."<ref name="Reese1"/> If his estimate is accurate, of 16,000 English infantrymen, about 11,000 were killed. The English chronicler [[Thomas Walsingham]] gave the number of English men-at-arms who were killed as 700,<ref name="referencing1">Mackenzie, p. 88 referencing Walsingham, p. 141</ref> while 500 more men-at-arms were spared for ransom.<ref name="Mackenzie, p.90"/> The Scottish losses appear to have been comparatively light, with only two knights among those killed.<ref>Reese, p. 176</ref>