Editing Basil II (section)

== Sole emperor (976–1025) ==
===Rebellions in Anatolia and alliance with Rus'===
[[File:Histamenon of Basil II & Constantine VIII.png|thumb|''[[Histamenon]]'' of Basil II (left) and [[Constantine VIII]] (right)]]
Basil was a very successful soldier on horseback and through his achievement he proved himself to be an able general and a strong ruler. In the early years of his reign, administration remained in the hands of Basil Lekapenos. As president of the Byzantine Senate, Lekapenos was a wily, gifted politician who hoped the young emperors would be his puppets. The younger Basil waited and watched without interfering, devoting himself to learning the details of administrative business and military science.<ref>
*{{harvnb|Stephenson|2010|p=34}}
*{{harvnb|Bury|1911|p=476}}
*{{harvnb|Ringrose|2004|p=130}}</ref> 
Nikephoros II and John I were brilliant military commanders but proved to be poor administrators. Towards the end of his reign, John had belatedly planned to curb the power of the great landowners; his death, which occurred soon after he spoke out against them, led to rumors that he had been poisoned by Lekapenos, who had illegally acquired vast estates and feared an investigation and punishment.{{sfn|Ringrose|2004|p=130}} At the start of his reign, the failures of his immediate predecessors left Basil II with a serious problem: [[Bardas Skleros]] and [[Bardas Phokas the Younger|Bardas Phokas]], members of the wealthy military elite of [[Anatolia]], had sufficient means to undertake open rebellion against his authority.{{sfn|Cartwright|2017}}

Skleros and Phokas, both of whom were experienced generals, wanted to assume the Imperial position that Nikephoros II and John I had held, and thus return Basil to the role of impotent cypher. Basil, showing a penchant for ruthlessness, took to the field himself and suppressed the rebellions of both [[Battle of Pankaleia|Skleros (979)]] and [[Rebellion of Bardas Phokas the Younger|Phokas (989)]]{{sfn|Magdalino|2003|p=36}} with the help of 12,000 [[Georgians]] of [[Tornike Eristavi|Tornikios]] and [[David III Kuropalates]] of [[Principality of Tao-Klarjeti|Tao]].{{sfn|Shephard|2000|p=596}} The fall of Lekapenos occurred between the rebellions in 985;{{sfn|Cartwright|2017}} he was accused of plotting with the rebels and was punished with exile and the confiscation of his property.{{sfn|Bury|1911|p=476}}{{sfn|Cartwright|2018a}}
[[File:BattlePhokasSkleros.jpg|thumb|Clash between the armies of Bardas Skleros and Bardas Phokas at [[Battle of Pankaleia|Pankaleia]], miniature from the [[Madrid Skylitzes]]''.'']]
The relationship between the two generals was complicated; Phokas was instrumental in defeating the rebellion of Skleros but when Phokas later rebelled, Skleros returned from exile to support him. When Phokas died in battle,{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=465}} Skleros, whom Phokas had imprisoned, assumed the leadership of the rebellion.{{sfn|Magdalino|2003|p=46}} Basil's brother Constantine—who had no interest in politics, statecraft, or the military{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=231}}–led troops alongside Basil; this was the only military command Constantine would hold. The campaign ended without combat{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=242–243}} when Skleros was forced to surrender to Basil in 989.{{sfn|Magdalino|2003|p=46}} Skleros was allowed to live but he died blind, either through disease or from being blinded as punishment for his insurrection.{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=6}}

These rebellions had a profound effect on Basil's outlook and methods of governance. Psellos describes the defeated Skleros giving Basil the following advice, which he took to heart: "Cut down the governors who become over-proud. Let no generals on campaign have too many resources. Exhaust them with unjust exactions, to keep them busied with their own affairs. Admit no woman to the imperial councils. Be accessible to no-one. Share with few your most intimate plans."{{sfn|Sewter|1953|p=43}}

To defeat these dangerous revolts, Basil formed an alliance with Prince [[Vladimir the Great|Vladimir I]] of [[Kievan Rus'|Kiev]],{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=60}} who in 988 had captured [[Chersonesus|Chersonesos]], the Empire's main base in the [[Crimean Peninsula]]. Vladimir offered to evacuate Chersonesos and to supply 6,000 of his soldiers as reinforcements to Basil. In exchange, he demanded to be married to Basil's younger sister Anna.{{sfn|Cross|Morgilevski|Conant|1936|p=479}} At first, Basil hesitated. The Byzantines viewed all of the peoples of Northern Europe—namely [[Franks]] and [[Slavs]]—as [[barbarian]]s. Anna objected to marrying a barbarian ruler because such a marriage would have no precedent in Imperial annals.{{sfn|Leong|1997|p=5}}

Vladimir had researched various religions, having sent delegates to various countries. Marriage was not his main reason for choosing [[Christianity]]. When Vladimir promised to baptize himself and to [[Christianization of Kievan Rus'|convert his people to Christianity]], Basil finally agreed. Vladimir and Anna were married in Crimea in 989. The Rus' warriors taken into Basil's army were instrumental in ending the rebellion; they were later organized into the [[Varangian Guard]].{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=60}} This marriage had important long-term implications, marking the beginning of the process by which the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] many centuries later would proclaim itself "The [[Third Rome]]", and claim the political and cultural heritage of the Byzantine Empire.{{sfn|Morson|1998}}

===Campaigns against the Fatimid Caliphate===
Once the internal strife was quelled, Basil turned his attention to the Empire's other enemies. The Byzantine civil wars had weakened the Empire's position in the east, and the gains of Nikephoros II and John I had nearly been lost to the [[Fatimid Caliphate]].{{sfn|Cartwright|2017}} In 987–988, a seven-year truce with the Fatimids was signed; it stipulated an [[Arab–Byzantine prisoner exchanges|exchange of prisoners]], the recognition of the Byzantine emperor as protector of Christians under Fatimid rule and of the Fatimid Caliph as protector of Muslims under Byzantine rule, and the replacement of the name of the Abbasid caliph with that of the Fatimid caliph in the [[Friday prayer]] in the mosque at [[Constantinople]].{{sfn|Lev|1995|p=202}} This lasted until the long-time [[vizier]] [[Yaqub ibn Killis]] died in 991. Fatimid caliph [[Al-Aziz Billah]] chose to pursue a more aggressive stance in Syria and appointed [[Manjutakin]] as governor of [[Damascus]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=324–325}}

===Manjutakin's attacks, and Basil's first expedition to Syria===
Encouraged by the defectors after the death of emir [[Sa'd al-Dawla]], Al-Aziz decided to renew his attacks on the [[Hamdanid dynasty|Hamdanid Emirate]] of Aleppo, a Byzantine protectorate, perhaps expecting Basil would not interfere. Manjutakin invaded the emirate, defeated a Byzantine force under the ''[[dux|doux]]'' of [[Antioch]] [[Michael Bourtzes]] in June 992, and laid siege to Aleppo. The city easily resisted. In early 993, after thirteen months of campaigning, a lack of supplies forced Manjutakin to return to Damascus.{{sfn|Whittow|1996|pp=379–380}}

In 994, Manjutakin resumed his [[Siege of Aleppo (994–995)|offensive]] and in September scored a major victory at the [[Battle of the Orontes]] against Bourtzes. {{Anchor|Basil II's Syrian expedition (995)}}Bourtzes' defeat forced Basil to intervene personally in the East; with his army, he rode through Asia Minor to Aleppo in sixteen days, arriving in April 995. Basil's sudden arrival and the exaggeration of his army's strength circulating in the Fatimid camp caused panic in the Fatimid army, especially because Manjutakin, expecting no threat, had ordered his cavalry horses to be dispersed around the city for pasture. Despite having a considerably larger and well-rested army, Manjutakin was at a disadvantage. He burned his camp and retreated to Damascus without battle.{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=322}} The Byzantines besieged [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] unsuccessfully and occupied [[Tartus]], which they refortified and garrisoned with Armenian troops. Al-Aziz now prepared to take to the field in person against the Byzantines and initiated large-scale preparations but they were abandoned upon his death.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=325}}{{sfn|Lev|1995|pp=201–203}}

====Second expedition to Syria, and peace====
Warfare between the two powers continued as the Byzantines supported an [[Revolt of Tyre (996–998)|anti-Fatimid uprising]] in [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]. In 998, the Byzantines under [[Damian Dalassenos]], the successor of Bourtzes, launched an attack on [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]] but the Fatimid general [[Jaysh ibn al-Samsama]] [[Battle of Apamea|defeated them in battle]] on 19 July 998.{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=322}} This defeat drew Basil back into the conflict; he arrived in Syria in October 999 and remained there for three months. Basil's troops raided as far as [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]], placed a garrison at [[Shaizar|Larissa]],{{sfn|Magdalino|2003|p=86}} and burnt three minor forts in the vicinity of [[Abu Qubays, Syria|Abu Qubais]], [[Masyaf|Masyath]] and [[Arqa|Arca]]. The siege of Tripoli in December failed while [[Homs|Emesa]] was not threatened.{{sfn|Stevenson|1926|p=252}} Basil's attention was diverted to developments in [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]] following the murder of [[David III Kuropalates]]; he departed for Cilicia in January and dispatched another embassy to Cairo.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}

In 1000, a ten-year truce was concluded between the two states.{{sfn|Lev|1995|pp=203–205}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=32}} For the remainder of the reign of [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] ({{r.}} 996–1021), relations remained peaceful as al-Hakim was more interested in internal affairs. Even the acknowledgement of Fatimid suzerainty by [[Abu Muhammad Lu'lu' al-Kabir]] of Aleppo in 1004 and the Fatimid-sponsored installment of [[Aziz al-Dawla]] as the city's emir in 1017 did not lead to a resumption of hostilities, especially because al-Kabir continued to pay tribute to the Byzantines and al-Dawla quickly began acting as an independent ruler.{{sfn|Lev|1995|p=205}} Al-Hakim's [[persecution of Christians]] in his realm and especially the 1009 destruction of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] at his orders strained relations and, along with Fatimid interference in Aleppo, provided the main focus of Fatimid–Byzantine diplomatic relations until the late 1030s.{{sfn|Lev|1995|pp=203, 205–208}}

===Conquest of Bulgaria===
{{Main|Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria}}
[[File:First Bulgarian Empire (976-1018).png|upright=1.35|thumb|Military campaigns during the [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|Byzantine-Bulgarian War]].]]
Basil sought to restore former territories of the Byzantine Empire. At the start of the second millennium, he fought [[Samuel of Bulgaria]], his greatest adversary. [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] had been partly subjugated by John I after the [[Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria|invasion]] of [[Svyatoslav I of Kiev]] but parts of the country had remained outside Byzantine control under the leadership of Samuel and his brothers.{{sfn|Talbot|Sullivan|2005|p=3}}

Because the Bulgars had been raiding Byzantine lands since 976, the Byzantine government sought to cause dissension among them by allowing the escape of their captive emperor [[Boris II of Bulgaria]]. This ploy failed so Basil used a respite from his conflict with the nobility to lead a 30,000-strong army into Bulgaria and besiege Sredets ([[Sofia]]) in 986.{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=402}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=14}} Taking losses and worried about the loyalty of some of his governors, Basil lifted the siege and returned for [[Thrace]] but he fell into an ambush and suffered a serious defeat at the [[Battle of the Gates of Trajan]].{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=14}} Basil escaped with the help of his Varangian Guard and attempted to recover his losses by turning Samuel's brother [[Aron of Bulgaria|Aron]] against him. Aron was tempted by Basil's offer of his sister Anna in marriage, but the negotiations failed when Aron discovered the bride he was sent was an imposter. By 987, Samuel had eliminated Aron. Another brother of Samuel, called David, was killed in 976 by the Vlachs, the guards of caravans, between Prespa and Kastoria.{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=312}} Although the titular emperor [[Roman of Bulgaria]] was captured in 991, Basil lost [[Moesia]] to the Bulgarians.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}{{sfn|Norwich|1981|p=158}}
[[File:Ambush and death of Gregorios Taronites by the Bulgarians.jpg|thumb|The Armenian prince [[Gregory Taronites]] is ambushed by the Bulgarians near [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonica]].]]
While Basil was distracted with internal rebellions and recovering the military situation on his eastern frontier, Samuel had extended his rule from the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the [[Black Sea]], recovering most of the territory that was controlled by Bulgaria before the invasion of Svyatoslav. He also conducted damaging raids into Byzantine territory as far as central Greece. In 996, the Byzantine general [[Nikephoros Ouranos]] defeated a Bulgarian army raid at the [[Battle of Spercheios]] in [[Thessaly]]. Samuel and his son [[Gavril Radomir|Gabriel]] narrowly escaped capture.{{sfn|Finlay|1856|p=440–441}}

Beginning in 1000, Basil was free to focus on a war of conquest against Bulgaria, which he fought with grinding persistence and strategic insight. In 1000, the Byzantine generals [[Nikephoros Xiphias]] and [[Theodorokanos]] took the former Bulgarian capital [[Preslav|Great Preslav]], and the towns Lesser Preslav and [[Pliska|Pliskova]].{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=326}} In 1001, Basil, operating from [[Thessalonica]], regained control of [[Vodena]], [[Veria|Verrhoia]] and [[Servia, Greece|Servia]].{{sfn|Finlay|1856|p=442}} The following year, he based his army in [[Plovdiv|Philippopolis]] and occupied the length of the military road from the western Haemus Mountains to the Danube, cutting off communications between Samuel's Macedonian heartland and [[Paristrion]] (the lands south of the lower Danube). Following this success, Basil laid siege to [[Vidin]], which fell after a prolonged resistance.{{sfn|Finlay|1856|pp=442–443}} Samuel reacted to the Byzantine campaign by launching a large-scale raid into the heart of Byzantine Thrace and took the major city of [[Adrianople]] by surprise.{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=328}}

After turning homeward with his extensive plunder, Samuel was [[Battle of Skopje|intercepted near Skopje]] by a Byzantine army commanded by Basil, whose forces stormed the Bulgarian camp, defeating the Bulgarians and recovering the plunder from Adrianople. Skopje surrendered shortly after the battle,{{sfn|Cartwright|2017}} and Basil treated its governor Romanos with overt kindness.{{sfn|Finlay|1856|p=443}} In 1005, the governor of [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]] [[Ashot Taronites]] surrendered his city to the Byzantines.{{sfn|Cartwright|2017}} The defection of Dyrrhachium completed the isolation of Samuel's core territories in the highlands of western [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. Samuel was forced into an almost entirely defensive stance; he extensively fortified the passes and routes from the coastlines and valleys held by the Byzantines to the territory remaining in his possession. During the next few years, the Byzantine offensive slowed and no significant gains were made, although an attempt by the Bulgarians to counter-attack in 1009 was defeated at the [[Battle of Kreta]], to the east of Thessalonica.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}
[[File:The_Chronicle_of_Ioannis_Skylitzis_Bulagar_Defeat.jpg|thumb|Byzantine victory over the Bulgarians at the [[Battle of Kleidion]], from the ''Madrid Skylitzes'']]
In 1014, Basil was ready to launch a campaign aimed at destroying Bulgarian resistance. On 29 July 1014, in the [[Battle of Kleidion]], he and his general Nikephoros Xiphias outmaneuvered the Bulgarian army,{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=3}} which was defending one of the fortified passes.{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=26}} Samuel avoided capture through the valor of his son Gabriel. Having crushed the Bulgarians, Basil exacted his vengeance cruelly—he was said to have captured 15,000 prisoners and fully blinded 99 of every 100 men, leaving one one-eyed man in each cohort to lead the rest back to their ruler. A possible reason for this vengeance was that, in Byzantine eyes, the Bulgarians were rebels against their authority, and blinding was the [[Political mutilation in Byzantine culture|usual punishment]] meted out to rebels.{{sfn|ODB|pp=297–298}} Samuel was struck down by the sight of his blinded army and died two days later{{sfn|Bury|1911|p=476}} on 6 October 1014 after suffering a stroke.{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=3}}

Bulgaria fought on for four more years, its resistance fired by Basil's cruelty, but it submitted in 1018.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}{{sfn|Cartwright|2018c}} This submission was the result of continued military pressure and a successful diplomatic campaign aimed at dividing and suborning the Bulgarian leadership. This victory over the Bulgarians and the later submission of the [[Serbs]] fulfilled one of Basil's goals; the Empire regained its ancient [[Danube River|Danubian]] frontier for the first time in 400 years.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}
[[File:Roman_triumph,_Basil_II.jpg|left|thumb|[[Roman triumph|Triumph]] of Basil II through the [[Forum of Constantine]], from the ''Madrid Skylitzes'']]
The rulers of neighbouring Croatia, [[Krešimir III]] and [[Gojslav]], who were previously allies of Bulgaria, accepted Basil's supremacy to avoid the same fate as Bulgaria;{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=74}} Basil warmly received their offers of vassalage and awarded them the honorary title of ''[[patrikios]]''.{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=339}} Croatia remained a tributary state to Basil until his death in 1025.{{sfn|Fine|1991|pp=277–278}} Before returning to Constantinople, Basil celebrated his triumph in [[Athens]].{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=76}}{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=60}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=104}} He showed considerable statesmanship in his treatment of the defeated Bulgarians, giving many former Bulgarian leaders court titles, positions in provincial administration, and high commands in the army. In this way, he sought to absorb the Bulgarian elite into Byzantine society. Because Bulgaria did not have a monetary economy to the same extent as Byzantium, Basil decided to accept Bulgarian taxes in kind.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=77}} Basil's successors reversed this policy, a decision that led to considerable Bulgarian discontent and rebellion later in the 11th century.{{sfn|Harris|2015|p=192}}
{{clear}}

===Khazar campaign===
[[File:Khazarfall1.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Pontic steppe]]s, {{Circa|1015}}. The areas in blue are those possibly still under Khazar control. The positioning of the rump of the Bulgarian state in 1015 is incorrect on this map.]]

Although the Kievan Rus' had broken the power of the [[Khazars|Khazar Khaganate]] in the 960s, the Byzantines had not been able to fully exploit the [[power vacuum]] and restore their dominion over Crimea and other areas around the Black Sea. In 1016, [[Byzantine armies]] in conjunction with [[Mstislav of Chernigov]] attacked the Crimea,{{sfn|Holmes|2003}} much of which had fallen under the control of the Khazar successor kingdom of [[George Tzoul]] based at [[Kerch]]. [[Kedrenos]] reports that Tzoul was captured and the Khazar successor kingdom was destroyed. Subsequently, the Byzantines occupied southern Crimea.{{sfn|Mango|2002|p=180}}

=== Campaigns against Georgia ===
{{Main|Byzantine–Georgian wars}}
The integrity of the Byzantine Empire was threatened after a full-scale rebellion led by Bardas Skleros broke out in 976. After winning a series of battles, the rebels conquered Asia Minor. In the urgency of the situation, Georgian prince [[David III of Tao]] aided Basil; after a decisive loyalist victory at the [[Battle of Pankalia|Battle of Pankaleia]], he was rewarded by lifetime rule of key imperial territories in eastern Asia Minor. David's rebuff of Basil in Bardas Phokas' revolt of 987, however, evoked Constantinople's distrust of the Georgian rulers. After the revolt's failure, David was forced to make Basil the legatee of his extensive possessions. In 1001, after the death of David of Tao, Basil inherited Tao, [[Phasiane (historical region)|Phasiane]] and [[Speri (region)|Speri]].{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=2}} These provinces were then organized into the [[Iberia (theme)|theme of Iberia]] with the capital at [[Erzurum|Theodosiopolis]]. This forced the successor Georgian Bagratid ruler [[Bagrat III of Georgia|Bagrat III]] to recognize the new rearrangement. Bagrat's son [[George I of Georgia|George I]], however, inherited a longstanding claim to David's succession. George, who was young and ambitious, launched a campaign to restore the Kuropalates's succession to Georgia and occupied Tao in 1015–1016. He entered in an alliance with the Fatimid caliph of Egypt, al-Hakim, forcing Basil to refrain from an acute response to George's offensive. The Byzantines were also involved in a relentless war with the Bulgarians, limiting their actions to the west. As soon as [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|Bulgaria was conquered]] in 1018 and al-Hakim was dead, Basil led his army against Georgia. Preparations for a larger-scale campaign against the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] were set, beginning with the re-fortification of Theodosiopolis.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}

[[File:Skylitzes. Basil II vs Georgians cropped.jpg|thumb|right|A miniature depicting the defeat of the Georgian king [[George I of Georgia|George I]] ("Georgios of Abasgia") by the Basil II. ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'', fol. 195v.]]

In late 1021, Basil, at the head of a large Byzantine army reinforced by the [[Varangian Guard]], attacked the Georgians and their [[Bagratid Armenia|Armenian]] allies, recovering Phasiane and continuing beyond the frontiers of Tao into inner Georgia.{{sfn|Magdalino|2003|p=65}} King George burned the city of [[Oltu|Oltisi]] to prevent it falling to the enemy and retreated to [[Göle|Kola]]. A bloody [[Battle of Shirimni|battle was fought near the village Shirimni]] at [[Lake Çıldır|Lake Palakazio]] on 11 September; the emperor won a costly victory, forcing George I to retreat northwards into his kingdom. Basil plundered the country and withdrew for winter to [[Trabzon|Trebizond]].{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=347}}

Several attempts to negotiate the conflict failed. George received reinforcements from the [[First Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakhetians]] and allied himself with the [[Byzantine]] commanders [[Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos]] and Nikephoros Xiphias in their abortive insurrection in the emperor's rear. In December, George's ally the Armenian king [[Senekerim-Hovhannes Artsruni|Senekerim]] of [[Vaspurakan]], who was being harassed by the [[Seljuk Turks]], surrendered his kingdom to the emperor.{{sfn|Mango|2002|p=309}} During early 1022, Basil launched a final offensive, defeating the Georgians at the [[Battle of Svindax]]. Menaced both by land and sea, George agreed to a [[Byzantine–Georgian treaty of 1022|treaty]] that handed over Tao, Phasiane, Kola, [[Ardahan|Artaan]] and [[Javakheti]], and left his infant son [[Bagrat IV of Georgia|Bagrat]] as Basil's hostage.{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=483}}

===Fiscal policies===
[[File:Basil II & Constantine VIII in the Exultet roll.jpg|thumb|Basil II (left) and [[Constantine VIII]] (right) in a [[Bari]] [[Exultet roll]], produced during Basil's late reign.{{efn|group=note|These portraits of Basil II and Constantine VIII are generally believed to be reliable.<ref name="ODB-ConstantineVIII"/> Constantine is portrayed as having a longer beard, which coincides with how he's depicted in later coinage.{{sfn|Spatharákīs|1976|pp=91−95}}}}]]
In 992, Basil concluded a treaty with the [[Doge of Venice]] [[Pietro II Orseolo]] under terms reducing Venice's custom duties in Constantinople from 30 ''[[nomismata]]'' to 17 ''nomismata''. In return, the Venetians agreed to transport Byzantine troops to southern Italy in times of war.<ref>
*{{harvnb|Vogt|1923b|p=94}}
*{{harvnb|Norwich|1981|p=158}}
*{{harvnb|Holmes|2003}}</ref>{{efn|group=note|The [[Edict on Maximum Prices]] issued during [[Diocletian]]'s reign placed the cost on carpets from [[Cappadocia]] "at 3000 ''[[denarii]]'', a price 30-fold the cost of a ''[[Ancient Roman units of measurement#Dry measure|modios]]'' of wheat and thus approximately the value of perhaps two middle Byzantine ''[[nomismata]]''".{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|p=96}}}} According to one estimate, a Byzantine landowning farmer might expect a profit of 10.2 ''nomismata'' after paying dues for half of his best-quality land.{{sfn|Laiou|2007|p=303}} Basil was popular with the country farmers,{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=280}} the class that produced most of his army's supplies and soldiers. To assure this continued, Basil's laws protected small agrarian property owners and lowered their taxes. Despite the almost constant wars, Basil's reign was considered an era of relative prosperity for the class.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}{{sfn|Magdalino|2003|p=79}}

Seeking to protect the lower and middle classes, Basil made ruthless war upon the system of immense estates in Asia Minor{{sfn|Bury|1911|p=476}}—which his predecessor [[Romanos I Lekapenos|Romanos I]] had endeavored to check{{sfn|Cartwright|2018a}}—by executing a [[Novel (Roman law)|legal decree]] in January 996 that limited rights to property ownership. If the owner of an estate could prove that he claimed his estate prior to the Novels of Romanos, he would be allowed to keep it. If a person had illegally seized an estate following the Novels of Romanos, he would have his rights to the estate declared null and the legal owners could reclaim it.{{sfn|Vogt|1923b|p=92}} In 1002, Basil also introduced the ''[[allelengyon]]'' tax{{sfn|Makris|2006}} as a specific law obliging the ''[[dynatoi]]'' (wealthy landholders) to cover for the arrears of poorer tax-payers. Though it proved unpopular with the wealthier sections of Byzantine society,{{sfn|ODB|loc="Allelengyon" (A. Cutler), p. 69}} Basil did not abolish the tax;{{sfn|Thomas|Thomas|1987|p=165}} the emperor [[Romanos III]] abolished the ''allelengyon'' in 1028.{{sfn|Makris|2006}} By 1025, Basil—with an annual revenue of 7 million ''nomismata''—was able to amass 14.4 million ''nomismata'' (or 200,000 pounds/90 [[tonne]]s of [[gold]]) for the Imperial treasury due to his prudent management.{{sfn|Sewter|1953|p=19}}{{sfn|Magdalino|2003|p=85}} Despite his attempts to control the power of the aristocracy, they again took control of the government following his death.{{sfn|Stephenson|Hoppenbrouwers|2014|p=9}}

===Military policies===
Basil II was praised by his army{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=66}} because he spent most of his reign campaigning with it rather than sending orders from Constantinople, as had most of his predecessors. This allowed his army to be largely supportive of him, often making his stance in political and church matters unquestionable. He lived the life of a soldier to the point of eating the same daily rations as the rest of the army. He also took the children of dead army officers under his protection and offered them shelter, food and education.{{sfn|Herrin|2013|p=219}} Many of these children became his soldiers and officers, taking the places of their fathers.{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=260}} One of them, [[Isaac I Komnenos|Isaac Komnenos]], later became emperor himself.

Basil did not innovate in terms of military organization: in the conquered territories he introduced both the small themes or ''strategiai'', centred around a fortress town, that were such a common feature of the 10th-century reconquests of the East under Phokas and Tzimiskes,{{sfn|Kühn|1991|pp=61ff.}} as well as the extensive regional commands under a ''doux'' or ''katepano'' ([[Iberia (theme)|Iberia]] in 1000,{{sfn|Kühn|1991|p=187}} [[Asprakania]] or Upper Media in 1019/22,{{sfn|Kühn|1991|p=192}} [[Paristrion]] in 1000/20,{{sfn|Kühn|1991|p=223}} [[Bulgaria (theme)|Bulgaria]] in 1018,{{sfn|Kühn|1991|p=227}} and [[Sirmium (theme)|Sirmium]] in 1019{{sfn|Kühn|1991|p=233}}). The exact size of the army under Basil II is unknown, but estimates put it as high as 110,000 men, excluding the imperial ''[[tagma (military)|tagmata]]'' in Constantinople; a considerable force, compared with the nominal establishment force of {{c.}} 120,000 in the 9th–10th centuries, or the 150,000–160,000 of the field armies under [[Justinian I]].{{sfn|Haldon|1999|pp=100–103}} At the same time, however, under Basil the practice began of relying on allied states—most notably Venice—for naval power, beginning the slow decline of the [[Byzantine navy]] during the 11th century.{{sfn|Haldon|1999|pp=90–91}}

===Later life, death and burial===
[[File:Map Byzantine Empire 1025-en.svg|thumb|upright=2|The Byzantine Empire at the death of Basil II in 1025]]
Basil II later secured the annexation of the sub-kingdoms of [[Bagratuni Kingdom of Armenia|Armenia]] and a promise that its capital and surrounding regions would be willed to Byzantium following the death of its king [[Hovhannes I of Ani|Hovhannes-Smbat]].{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=528–529}} In 1021, he also secured the cession of the [[Kingdom of Vaspurakan]] by its king [[Seneqerim-Hovhannes of Vaspurakan|Seneqerim-John]], in exchange for estates in [[Sebasteia (theme)|Sebasteia]].{{sfn|Mango|2002|p=309}} Basil created a strongly fortified frontier in those highlands. Other Byzantine forces restored much of [[Southern Italy]], which had been lost during the previous 150 years.{{sfn|Hussey|1998}}

Basil was preparing a military expedition to recover the island of [[Sicily]] when he died on 15 December 1025,{{efn|group=note|This is the universally accepted date for Basil's death.<ref name="PMBZ"/><ref name="ODB"/>{{sfn|Hussey|1998}} The date is found in the [[Skylitzes]]' (and [[Cedrenus]]') chronicle archived in the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]].{{sfn|Thurn|1973|p=868 (note 84)}} Two latter copies, from the 15th century, give 12 December.{{sfn|Thurn|1973|p=868 (note 84)}}{{sfn|Schreiner|1975|p=158. Δεκεμβρίου [[Greek numerals|ιβ']]}} Two others, from the 13th century, give 13 December.{{sfn|Grierson|1962|p=58}}{{sfn|Schreiner|1975|p=165. Δεκεμβρίου [[Greek numerals|ιγ']]}} The [{{GBurl|nbkVAQAAMAAJ|pg=PA479}} 1839 edition] of the [[CSHB]] uses the Paris manuscript, but forgets to translate the full date (Δεκεμβρίῳ γὰρ μηνί '''[[Greek numerals|ιεʹ]]'''), a mistake that is repeated in the 2010 translation.{{sfn|Wortley|2010|p=348}}}} having had the longest reign among any Byzantine or Roman emperor.{{sfn|Rogers|2010|p=126}} At the time of his death, the Empire stretched from southern Italy to the [[Caucasus]] and from the [[Danube]] to the [[Levant]], which was its greatest territorial extent since the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] four centuries earlier.{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=23}} Basil was to be buried in the last sarcophagus available in the [[Rotunda (architecture)|rotunda]] of [[Constantine I]] in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]] but he later asked his brother and successor Constantine VIII to be buried in the Church of St. John the Theologian (''i.e.'', the Evangelist) at the [[Hebdomon]] Palace complex outside the walls of Constantinople.{{sfn|Holmes|2003}}{{sfn|Cartwright|2018c}} The [[Epitaph on the tomb of Basil II|epitaph on Basil's tomb]] celebrated his campaigns and victories. His final resting place carried the following inscription: {{blockquote|From the day that the King of Heaven called upon me to become the Emperor, the great overlord of the world, no one saw my spear lie idle. I stayed alert throughout my life and protected the children of the New Rome, valiantly campaigning both in the West and at the outposts of the East&nbsp;... O, man, seeing now my tomb here, reward me for my campaigns with your prayers.{{sfn|Herrin|2013|p=219}}}} In 1260, during the unsuccessful [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicean Byzantine]] [[Siege of Constantinople (1260)|siege of Constantinople]], then held by the [[Latin Empire]], a corpse was found, upright in a corner of the Church of St. John the Evangelist, with a shepherd's flute placed in its mouth. An inscription allowed the Nicaean soldiers to identify the corpse as the remains of Basil II. The body of Basil II was transferred to the Monastery of the Saviour at [[Selymbria]]. The following year Constantinople was recovered by the Byzantines.{{sfn|Stephenson|2010|p=95}}