Editing Arabs (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of the Arabs}}
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The nomads of Arabia have been spreading through the desert fringes of the [[Fertile Crescent]] since at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording the [[Battle of Qarqar]] in 853 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HISTORY OF THE ARABS|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=936&HistoryID=aa94&gtrack=pthc|access-date=1 May 2023|website=historyworld.net}}</ref><ref>Noble, John Travis. 2013. "Let Ishmael Live Before You!" Finding a Place for Hagar's Son in the Priestly Tradition. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.</ref> The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period covers various regions such as [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabia]], Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such as [[Assyria]]n and [[Babylonia]]n Royal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Delitzsche|title=Assyriesche Lesestuche|year=1912|location=Leipzig|oclc=2008786}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Montgomery|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.76203|title=Arabia and the Bible|publisher=U of Pennsylvania|year=1934|location=Philadelphia|oclc=639516}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Winnet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEFjAAAAMAAJ&q=qedar|title=Ancient Records from North Arabia|year=1970|isbn=978-0802052193|pages=51, 52|publisher=University of Toronto Press|oclc=79767|quote=king of kedar (Qedarites) is named alternatively as king of Ishmaelites and king of Arabs in Assyrian Inscriptions}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Stetkevychc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVXC72Td6CsC&pg=PA76|title=Muhammad and the Golden Bough|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0253332080|quote=Assyrian records document Ishmaelites as Qedarites and as Arabs}}</ref> There are also records from [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon's reign]] that mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza in [[Babylon]], causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that the Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of the [[Israelites]]. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Arabs of North Arabia in later Pre-Islamic Times:Qedar, Nebaioth, and Others|url=https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/the-arabs-of-north-arabia-in-later-pre-islamic-timesqedar-nebaiot|access-date=29 May 2023|website=Research Explorer The University of Manchester}}</ref>

[[File:Midian.png|left|thumb|upright|Map of Midian]]
[[Magan (civilization)|Magan]], [[Midian]], and [[ʿĀd]] are all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in the Arabia. Magan ({{langx|ar|مِجَانُ}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|Majan}}''), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in the [[Quran|Qur'an]] as a place where [[Moses in Islam|Musa]] ([[Moses]]) traveled during his lifetime.<ref name="The Archeology Fund">{{cite web|last1=Zarins|first1=Juris|title=The Archeology Fund|url=http://www.arabian-archaeology.com/aboutlinks.htm|access-date=30 November 2021|website=The Archeology Fund|archive-date=1 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801154135/http://www.arabian-archaeology.com/aboutlinks.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=M. Redha Bhacker and Bernadette Bhacker|title=Digging in the Land of Magan|url=http://www.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html|publisher=[[Archaeological Institute of America]]|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=29 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529051003/http://www.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Midian ({{langx|ar|مَدْيَن}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|Madyan}}''), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian are [[List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran|mentioned in the Qur'an]] as having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience.<ref>{{citation|last=Dever|first=W. G.|title=Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?|date=2006|page=34|publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]]|isbn=978-0802844163|author-link=William G. Dever}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Genesis 25:1–2|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+25%3A1-2&version=KJV|website=[[Bible Gateway]]|version=King James Version}}</ref> [[Moses]] also lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd ({{langx|ar|عَادَ}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|ʿĀd}}''), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by a powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience to [[Allah|God]].<ref name="Brill1">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#1st edition, EI1|E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936]]|date=1987|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|isbn=90-04-08265-4|volume=1|page=121}}</ref> ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes.<ref>F. Buhl, "ʿĀd", in ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', ed. by Paul Bearman and others, 2nd edn, 12 vols (Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005), {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0290}}, {{ISBN|978-9004161214}}.</ref><ref name="Brill8">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#1st edition, EI1|E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936]]|date=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=9004082654|volume=8|page=1074}}</ref>
The historian [[Herodotus]] provided extensive information about Arabia, describing the [[spice]]s, [[terrain]], [[folklore]], [[trade]], [[clothing]], and [[weapon]]s of the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just before [[Cambyses II|Cambyses]]' campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia include [[Theophrastus]], [[Strabo]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], and [[Pliny the Elder]]. The Jewish historian [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] wrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship with [[Cleopatra]], the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected by [[Herod the Great|Herod]], the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, Book XV|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-15.html|access-date=30 April 2023|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> [[Geshem the Arabian|Geshem the Arab]] was an Arab man who opposed [[Nehemiah]] in the Hebrew Bible ([[Book of Nehemiah|Neh]]. [[Nehemiah 2:19|2:19]], [[Nehemiah 6:1|6:1]]). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and the [[Samaritans]] made efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of the [[walls of Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 February 2013|title=HOW TO HANDLE OPPOSITION|url=https://abidanshah.com/2013/02/23/how-to-handle-opposition/|access-date=30 April 2023|website=abidanshah.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Geshem the Arabian|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6639-geshem-the-arabian|access-date=1 May 2023|website=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Geshem, Gashmu|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/geshem-gashmu|access-date=1 May 2023|website=encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

[[File:Roman Empire - Arabia Petraea (125 AD).svg|thumb|Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia existed from the 2nd century onwards.
Including regions in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northwestern Arabian Peninsula]]

[[File:Al-Khazneh (The Treasury), Petra, Jordan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Al-Khazneh]] in [[Petra]], capital of the [[Nabataean Kingdom]], built as a mausoleum to Nabataean King [[Aretas IV]] in the first century AD]]

The term "[[Saracens]]" was a term used in the early centuries, both in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] writings, to refer to the "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] as [[Arabia Petraea]] (Levant) and [[Arabia Deserta]] (Arabia).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Retsö|first=Jan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/857081715|title=The Arabs in antiquity : their history from the Assyrians to the Umayyads|date=2003|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|isbn=978-1315029535|location=London|oclc=857081715}}</ref><ref name="Lionheart">{{Cite web|title=Eyewitnesstohistory|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lionheart.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402073536/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lionheart.htm|archive-date=2 April 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|website=Eyewitnesstohistory.com}}</ref> The Christians of [[Iberia]] used the term [[Moors|''Moor'']] to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. [[Hagarenes]] is a term widely used by early [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] to&nbsp;describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibn Khaldun and The Myth of "Arab Invasion"|url=https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/news/3293-ibn-khaldun-and-the-myth-of-arab-invasion|access-date=1 May 2023|website=Verso}}</ref> The [[Arab conquests]] in the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment for [[Islam]], which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HISTORY OF THE ARABS|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=944&HistoryID=aa94&gtrack=pthc|access-date=1 May 2023|website=historyworld.net}}</ref>

=== Antiquity ===
{{Main|Pre-Islamic Arabia|Dilmun|Gerrha|Thamud|Qedarites|Lihyan|}}
[[File:Receipt for garnments sent by boat to Dilmun BM 130462.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Receipt for garments sent by boat to Dilmun in the 1st year of [[Ibbi-Sin]]'s rule, circa 2028 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|title=tablet|url=https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327231&page=171&partId=1&peoA=92773-3-12&people=92773|website=British Museum}}</ref><ref>Transcription: {{cite web|title=CDLI-Archival View|url=https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P137833|website=cdli.ucla.edu}}</ref>]]

Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included, [[Dilmun]] civilization was an important trading centre<ref name="hoj">{{cite journal|author=Jesper Eidema, Flemming Højlundb|date=1993|title=Trade or diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the eighteenth century BC|journal=World Archaeology|volume=24|issue=3|pages=441–448|doi=10.1080/00438243.1993.9980218}}</ref> which at the height of its power controlled the [[Persian Gulf|Arabian Gulf]] trading routes.<ref name="hoj" /> The [[Sumer]]ians regarded Dilmun as [[Holy Land|holy land]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rice|first1=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC6DAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|title=Egypt's Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000–2000 BC|year=1991|isbn=978-1134492633|page=230|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{cite news|date=21 May 2013|title=Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilisations|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270|url-status=live|access-date=11 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113080926/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270|archive-date=13 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="uns">{{cite web|title=Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405042527/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|archive-date=5 April 2012|access-date=17 August 2011|publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE. [[Gerrha]] was an ancient city of [[Eastern Arabia]], on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300. [[Thamud]], which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of the first millennium BCE, [[Proto-Arabic language|Proto-Arabic]], or [[Ancient North Arabian]], texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of [[Epigraph (literature)|epigraphic]] south Arabian ''[[South Arabian alphabet|musnad]]'' script, including the 8th century BCE [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Hasaean]] inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the [[Thamudic]] texts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]].
[[File:Qedarites Map.svg|thumb|Map of the Qedarite Kingdom in the 5th century B.C|left]]
The [[Qedarites]] were a largely [[nomad]]ic ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in the [[Wadi Sirhan|Wādī Sirḥān]] in the [[Syrian Desert]]. They were known for their [[nomad]]ic lifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] world. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. The Qedarites were influential in the [[ancient Near East]], and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kessler|first=P. L.|title=Kingdoms of the Arabs – Kedar / Kedarites|url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/ArabicKedar.htm|access-date=31 March 2023|website=The History Files}}</ref>
[[File:Queen of Sheba0027.jpg|thumb|The Queen of Sheba]]
[[Sheba]] ({{langx|ar|سَبَأٌ}} ''Saba'') is kingdom mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]) and the [[Quran]], though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features in [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Islam|Muslim]], and [[Christian]] traditions, whose lineage goes back to [[Qahtanite|Qahtan]] [[Ben|son of]] [[Hud (prophet)|Hud]], one of the ancestors of the Arabs,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Landmarks of the Ancient Kingdom of Saba, Marib|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1700/|access-date=23 March 2023|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name="qref|27|6-93|b=y">{{qref|27|6–93|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|34|15-18|b=y">{{qref|34|15–18|b=y}}</ref> Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings of [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] writers.<ref name="British Museum – The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia">{{Cite web|date=4 May 2015|title=British Museum – The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/middle_east/ancient_south_arabia/the_kingdoms_of_ancient_south.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504061448/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/middle_east/ancient_south_arabia/the_kingdoms_of_ancient_south.aspx|archive-date=4 May 2015|access-date=25 March 2023}}</ref> One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Saba' {{!}} History, Kingdom, & Sabaeans {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saba-ancient-kingdom-Arabia|access-date=25 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> [[File:Dhamar Ali Yahbur (bust).jpg|thumb|upright|left|A bronze statue of Dhamar Ali Yahbur II, a [[Himyarite]] king who reigned in late 3rd or early 4th century CE. Displayed in the [[Sana'a National Museum]].]] [[Sabaeans]] are mentioned several times in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. In the [[Quran]],<ref name="Brannon2002">{{Cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Brannon M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lo9jAavEHdIC&pg=PA166|title=Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2002|isbn=0-8264-4956-5|page=166}}</ref> they are described as either {{transliteration|ar|Sabaʾ}} ({{lang|ar|سَبَأ}}, not to be confused with {{transliteration|ar|[[Sabians|Ṣābiʾ]]}}, {{lang|ar|صَابِئ}}),<ref name="qref|27|6-93|b=y" /><ref name="qref|34|15-18|b=y" /> or as {{transliteration|ar|Qawm [[Tubba'|Tubbaʿ]]|italics=yes}} ({{langx|ar|قَوْم تُبَّع|lit=People of Tubbaʿ|link=no}}).<ref>{{qref|44|37|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{qref|50|12–14|b=y}}</ref> They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh. These highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, and [[Roman Empire|Rome]], making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. The [[Marib Dam|Maʾrib Dam]] was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city of [[Marib|Maʾrib]] and the surrounding agricultural lands.<ref>{{Citation|last=Zaidi|first=Asghar|title=Conceptualising Well-being of Older People|date=2017|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315234182-2|work=Well-being of Older People in Ageing Societies|pages=33–53|access-date=25 March 2023|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315234182-2|isbn=978-1315234182}}</ref><ref name="Kitchen">Kenneth A. Kitchen ''The World of "Ancient Arabia" Series''. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110</ref><ref name="British Museum – The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia" />

[[Lihyan]] also called Dadān or Dedan was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and used [[Dadanitic]] language.<ref name="Britannica Lihyan2">{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated-->|title=Liḥyān – Ancient Kingdom, Arabia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Lihyan|access-date=7 March 2017|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-day [[Al-'Ula|Al Ula]]), and it controlled a large territory that extended from [[Medina|Yathrib]] in the south to parts of the Levant in the north.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lion Tombs of Dedan|url=https://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan//|access-date=31 March 2023|website=saudiarabiatourismguide.com}}</ref><ref name="Britannica Lihyan2" /> The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to be [[Ishmaelites]], and used [[Dadanitic]] language.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nethanel ben Isaiah|title=Sefer Me'or ha-Afelah|date=1983|publisher=Mechon Moshe|location=Kiryat Ono|page=119|language=he|translator=[[Yosef Qafih]]|oclc=970925649|author-link=Nethanel ben Isaiah}}</ref>

The [[Minaeans|Kingdom of Ma'in]] was an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus on [[agriculture]] and [[trade]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rossi|first=Irene|date=2014|title=The Minaeans beyond Maʿīn|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43782855|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=44|pages=111–123|issn=0308-8421|jstor=43782855}}</ref> Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although the exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted the [[Phoenician alphabet]] and used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to the [[Sabaeans|Arab Sabaean]] people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weimar|first=Jason|date=November 2021|title=The Minaeans after Maʿīn? The latest presently dateable Minaic text and the God of Maʿīn|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aae.12176|journal=Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy|volume=32|issue=S1|pages=376–387|doi=10.1111/aae.12176|issn=0905-7196|s2cid=233780447}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ma'in {{!}} History, Minaeans, & Temple {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Main-ancient-kingdom-Yemen|access-date=23 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>[[File:Qataban lion bronze.jpg|thumb|Hellenistic-style Qatabānian sculpture depicting the Moon as a baby boy riding a lion representing the Sun.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}]]Qataban was an ancient kingdom located in the [[South Arabia]], which existed from the early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}} It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=48}} Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans.{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Schiettecatte|2017}} It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=46}} Qataban's power declined in the following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt and [[Himyarite Kingdom|Ḥimyar]] in the 1st century CE.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=42}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=47}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}

The [[Kingdom of Hadhramaut]] it was known for its rich [[cultural heritage]], as well as its strategic location along important [[trade route]]s that connected the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]], and [[East Africa]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sedov|first1=Alexander V.|last2=Bâtâyiʿ|first2=Ahmad|date=1994|title=Temples of Ancient Hadramawt|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223417|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=24|pages=183–196|issn=0308-8421|jstor=41223417}}</ref> The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during the 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressive [[architecture]], particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hadhramaut|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hadhramaut|access-date=26 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabian Peninsula, 1–500 A.D.|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/05/wap.html|access-date=26 March 2023|website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History}}</ref> Although the kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hadramawt|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hadramawt|access-date=26 March 2023|website=encyclopedia.com}}</ref>
[[File:HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg|left|thumb|1st century coin of the [[Himyarite]] Kingdom, southern coast of the [[Arabian peninsula]].]]
The ancient [[Kingdom of Awsan|Kingdom of Awsān]] (8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms of [[South Arabia]], and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. The victory of the Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Arabia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Arabia-31558|access-date=7 June 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

The [[Himyarite Kingdom]] or Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in the [[Zafar, Yemen|city of Zafar]], which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke a [[Old South Arabian|South Arabian language]] and were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring,<ref name=CP1>{{Cite journal|last1=Playfair|first1=Col|year=1867|title=On the Himyaritic Inscriptions Lately brought to England from Southern Arabia|journal=Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London|volume=5|pages=174–177|doi=10.2307/3014224|jstor=3014224}}</ref> they controlled the [[South Arabia|southern part of Arabia]] and had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted to [[Judaism]] in the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as the "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, including [[Christianity]] and the local pagan religions.<ref name=CP1/>

==== Classical antiquity ====
{{main|Nabataeans|Palmyra|Palmyrene Empire|Itureans|Osroene|Kingdom of Hatra|Arbayistan|Adiabene|Emesene dynasty}}
{{multiple image
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| footer            = Nabataean Kingdom spanned from southern Jordan to Damascus, including the Tihamah coastal plain and Hejaz region. (above) and Palmyrene Empire extended from Ancyra, central Anatolia, to Upper Egypt. (below)
| width1            = 170
| image1            = Nabatean Kingdom.svg
| width2            = Caruso
| image2            = Palmyrene Empire.png
| alt2              = Pavarotti
}}

The [[Nabataeans]] were nomadic Arabs who settled in a territory centred around their capital of Petra in what is now Jordan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA483|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1438126760}}</ref><ref name=":02">* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/263437/Herod Herod] at ''Encyclopædia Britannica'': "Herod was born in southern Palestine. His father, Antipater, was an Edomite (a Semitic people, identified by some scholars as Arab, who converted to Judaism in the 2nd century BCE). Antipater was a man of great influence and wealth who increased both by marrying the daughter of a noble from Petra (in southwestern Jordan), at that time the capital of the rising Arab Nabataean kingdom. Thus, Herod was of Arab origin, although he was a practicing Jew."
* {{cite web|last=Perowne|first=Stewart Henry|date=25 June 2015|title=Herod – king of Judaea|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150625081825/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|archive-date=25 June 2015|access-date=22 November 2020|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Their early inscriptions were in [[Aramaic]], but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The [[Nabataean alphabet]] was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by [[Safaitic]] inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in [[Nabataean]] inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from [[Qaryat al-Faw]] reveal a dialect no longer considered ''proto-Arabic'', but ''pre-classical Arabic''. Five [[Syriac language|Syriac]] inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found at [[Sumatar Harabesi]], one of which dates to the 2nd century CE.<ref>{{cite web|title=Herod|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=10 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Catherwood|first1=Christopher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=krKeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT63|title=A Brief History of the Middle East|date=2011|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-1849018074}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Antoninianus of Zenobia (obverse).png
| caption1          = Queen [[Zenobia]], {{c.}} 240 – c. 274 CE) was a third-century queen of the [[Palmyrene Empire]] in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]. One of several ancient female rulers in antiquity of Arab origin.
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Arabs are first recorded in [[Palmyra]] in the late first millennium BCE.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} The soldiers of the [[sheikh]] Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA359 359]}} After the [[Battle of Edessa]] in 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian king [[Shapur I]] was a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks. [[Zenobia]] was able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, as [[Aurelian]] was able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East.

Most scholars identify the [[Iturea]]ns as an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea,<ref>{{cite journal|author=David F. Graf|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1764-0733_2003_act_4_1_2871|title=Arabs in Syria: Demography and Epigraphy|journal=Topoi. Orient-Occident|publisher=Topoi. Orient-Occident. Supplément|year=2003|volume=4|issue=1|pages=319–340}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Irfan Shahîd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&q=ituraeans+old+arab+people+irfan+shahid&pg=PA5|title=Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=1984|isbn=978-0884021155|edition=Hardcover|page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Mark A. Chancey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YrrRaeP5po0C&q=arab|title=The Myth of a Gentile Galilee (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0521814871|edition=Hardcover|page=44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Zuleika Rodgers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5I8zfmwEjjUC&q=itureans+arabs&pg=PA207|title=A Wandering Galilean: Essays in Honour of Seán Freyne (Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism)|author2=Margaret Daly-Denton|author3=Anne Fitzpatrick-McKinley|publisher=Brill|year=2009|isbn=978-9004173552|edition=Hardcover|page=207}}</ref> emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE, from their base around [[Mount Lebanon]] and the [[Beqaa Valley]], they came to dominate vast stretches of [[Syria (region)|Syrian territory]],<ref>Steve Mason, ''Life of Josephus'',Brill, 2007 p.54, n.306.</ref> and appear to have penetrated into northern parts of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] as far as the [[Galilee]].<ref name="Berndt Schaller 14922" /> [[Tanukhids]] were an [[Tribes of Arabia|Arab tribal confederation]] that lived in the central and eastern Arabian Peninsula during the late ancient and early medieval periods. As mentioned earlier, they were a branch of the [[Rabi'a ibn Nizar|Rabi'ah tribe]], which was one of the largest Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic period. They were known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the early Islamic period, fighting in battles against the Byzantine and Sassanian empires and contributing to the expansion of the Arab empire.<ref>Ball, Warwick (2001), Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, Routledge, {{ISBN|0415113768}} pp. 98–102</ref>
[[File:Northern Mesopotamian vassal kingdoms AD 200.png|left|thumb|Map of the kingdoms of Osroene, Hatra, and Adiabene in Mesopotamia in 200 CE]]
The [[Osroene|Osroene Arabs]], also known as the [[Abgarid dynasty|Abgarids]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=%22arab+principality+of+edessa%22&pg=PA508|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|last2=Garnsey|first2=Peter|last3=Cameron|first3=Averil|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521301992}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Osroene|title=Osroëne &#124; Middle East, Syria, Armenia &#124; Britannica|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Skolnik|first1=Fred|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JD0OAQAAMAAJ&q=%22the+Arab+kingdom%22|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|last2=Berenbaum|first2=Michael|date=2007|publisher=Macmillan Reference US|isbn=978-0028659435}}</ref> were in possession of the city of [[Edessa]] in the [[ancient Near East]] for a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of the [[Abgarid dynasty|dynasty]] was [[Abgar V]], who is said to have corresponded with [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] and is believed to have converted to [[Christianity]].<ref>{{iranica|abgar-dynasty-of-edessa-2nd-century-bc-to-3rd-century-ad}}{{blockquote|The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa.}}</ref> The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning and [[Religious studies|scholarship]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ring|first1=Steven|title=History of Syriac texts and Syrian Christianity – Table 1|url=http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227034200/http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html|archive-date=27 February 2018|access-date=26 February 2018|website=syriac.talktalk.net}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Hatra]] was an ancient city located in the region of [[Mesopotamia]], it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during the [[Parthian Empire]]. The rulers of Hatra were known as the Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe of [[Tanukhids|Banu Tanukh]] seized control of [[Hatra]] and established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs."<ref name="Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth">{{cite journal|last1=de Jong|first1=Albert|date=2013|title=Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth|url=https://www.academia.edu/18709085|journal=Oriens et Occidens – Band 21|pages=143–161|url-access=registration}}</ref>[[File:KingdomOfEmesa.png|thumb|upright|The Kingdom of Emesa]]
The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included the Arabs of [[Adiabene]] which was an ancient [[Monarchy|kingdom]] in northern [[Mesopotamia]], its chief city was [[Erbil|Arbela]] (''Arba-ilu''), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela.<ref>[[Yaqut al-Hamawi|Yaqut]], ''Geographisches Wörterbuch'', ii. 263; Payne-Smith, ''Thesaurus Syriacus'', under "Hadyab"; Hoffmann, ''Auszüge aus Syrischen Akten'', pp. 241, 243.</ref>{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=54}} This Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by the [[Sasanian dynasty|Sasanians]], who called the region [[Arbayistan]], meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as a province in the [[Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht|Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription]] of the second Sasanian [[King of Kings]], [[Shapur I]] ({{reign|240|270}}),{{sfnp|Brunner|1983b|p=750}} which was erected in {{circa}} 262.{{sfnp|Rapp|2014|p=28}}<ref name="oxfordreference.com2" /> The [[Emesene dynasty|Emesene]] were a dynasty of Arab priest-kings that ruled the city of [[Emesa]] (modern-day [[Homs]], Syria) in the [[Roman Syria|Roman province of Syria]] from the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty is notable for producing a number of high priests of the god [[Elagabalus|El-Gabal]], who were also influential in [[Political institutions of ancient Rome|Roman politics]] and culture. The first ruler of the Emesene dynasty was [[Sampsiceramus I]], who came to power in 64 CE. He was succeeded by his son, [[Iamblichus]], who was followed by his own son, [[Sampsiceramus II]]. Under Sampsiceramus II, Emesa became a client kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]], and the dynasty became more closely tied to Roman political and cultural traditions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=Emesa+dynasty+arab+city&pg=PA502|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|last2=Garnsey|first2=Peter|last3=Cameron|first3=Averil|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521301992}}; {{cite book|last1=Hornblower|first1=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA754|title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary|last2=Spawforth|first2=Antony|last3=Eidinow|first3=Esther|date=2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0199545568}}; {{harvnb|Ball|2000}}; {{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Jasper|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hL99AgAAQBAJ&q=Emesa+arab+tribe&pg=PA181|title=Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134131853}}; {{cite book|last1=Prado|first1=Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHbXDgAAQBAJ&q=emesa+arab&pg=PA191|title=Varian Studies Volume One: Varius|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=9781443893855}}; {{harvnb|Birley|2002}}; {{cite book|last=Shahid|first=Irfan|title=Rome and The Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|date=1984|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|isbn=0884021157|page=37}}; {{cite book|last1=Freisenbruch|first1=Annelise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUR_3B97ctQC&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA182|title=Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire|date=2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1416583059}}</ref>

==== Late antiquity ====
{{Further|Tanukhids|Salihids|Lakhmid kingdom|Kingdom of Kinda|Ghassanids}}{{Multiple image
| image1            = Ghassanid Kingdom Map.svg
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| caption1          = Map of the [[Ghassanid]]
| image2            = Salihids Map.svg
| caption2          = Map of [[Salihids]]
| image3            = Tanukh Map.svg
| caption3          = Map of the [[Tanukhid]]
| header            =
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}}The [[Ghassanids]], [[Lakhmids]] and [[Kindites]] were the last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-Hellenized [[Syria (Byzantine province)|Syria]], the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in the [[Hauran]] region and spread to modern [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine]] and [[Jordan]]. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "[[Arabia Felix]]".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dionysius Periegetes|url=http://www.cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914113448/http://cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html|archive-date=14 September 2018|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Cartographic-images.net}}</ref> The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the [[Roman Empire]] ''[[Arabia Petraea]]'', after the city of [[Petra]], and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east [[Arabia Magna]].  [[File:Lakhmid.png|left|upright|thumb|Lakhmid kingdom]]The [[Lakhmids]] as a dynasty inherited their power from the [[Tanukh]]ids, the mid Tigris region around their capital [[Al-Hira]]. They ended up allying with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]] against the Ghassanids and the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying the [[Kingdom of Kinda]] in 540 after the fall of their main ally [[Himyar]]. The [[Persian people|Persian]] Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control.<ref>Harold Bailey [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PR59 ''The Cambridge history of Iran'': The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods], Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1983, {{ISBN|052120092X}} p. 59</ref> The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais [[Rabi`ah|Rabi'a]] tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid king [[Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man|Al-Mundhir]], and his son [['Amr III ibn al-Mundhir|'Amr]].

The [[Ghassanids]] were an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered a branch of the [[Azd|Azd tribe]]. They fought alongside the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] against the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]] and Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting to [[Christianity]] in the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ganie|first=Mohammad Hafiz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13|title=Abu Bakr: The Beloved of My Beloved|publisher=Mohammad Hafiz Ganie|isbn=979-8411225921|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131335/https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13|archive-date=17 January 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Salihids]] were Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work of [[Hisham ibn al-Kalbi]], with the [[Tarikh al-Yaqubi|Tarikh of Ya'qubi]] considered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and the terms of their foedus with the Byzantines.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=John W.|date=1 April 1996|title=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102112427/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 November 2023|journal=The Journal of the American Oriental Society|language=English|volume=116|issue=2|pages=304–306|doi=10.2307/605736|jstor=605736}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
{{main|Spread of Islam|Arab conquests}}
[[File:The Early Muslim Conquests 630s to 820s.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|The early Arab conquests by reign]]
During the [[Middle Ages]], Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields of [[science]], [[mathematics]], [[medicine]], [[philosophy]], and [[literature]], with the rise of great cities like [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]], and [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals.<ref name="Wenner 1980 59–79">{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/163627|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=0020-7438|jstor=163627|s2cid=162537404}}</ref><ref name="A Golden age of Arab culture">{{Cite web|title=A Golden age of Arab culture|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000074817|access-date=26 March 2023|website=unesdoc.unesco.org}}</ref> Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended from [[Spain]] to India.<ref name="Wenner 1980 59–79"/> The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world.<ref name="A Golden age of Arab culture"/><timeline>
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  from: 622  till:  632  color:era text:[[Muhammad]]
  from: 632  till:  634  color:age text:[[Abu Bakr]]
  from: 634  till:  644  color:era text:[[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]
  from: 644  till:  656  color:age text:[[Uthman ibn Affan]]
  from: 656  till:  661  color:era text:[[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]
  from: 661  till:  666  color:age text:[[Muawiyah I]]
</timeline>The [[Spread of Islam|rise of Islam]] began when [[Muhammad]] and his followers migrated from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]] in an event known as the [[Hijrah|Hijra]]. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.<ref name="Collins142">Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 142–143, 150, 160</ref> During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of [[Basra]], and under the leadership of [[Umar]], they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was [[Midian]], but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved to [[Kufa]]. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of [[Uthman]], the Arab empire expanded through the [[Arab conquest of Persia|conquest of Persia]], with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]] in 651.<ref name="Cunliffe4212">Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 421–423</ref> The [[Arab conquest of armenia|conquest of Armenia]] also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entire [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Empire]] and more than two-thirds of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]. However, the reign of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], the fourth caliph, was marred by the [[First Fitna]], or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hassan ibn Ali]] and the suppression of early [[Kharijites|Kharijite]] disturbances, [[Mu'awiya I|Muawiyah I]] became the Caliph.<ref name="Brown15">Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 15</ref> This marked a significant transition in leadership.<ref name="Cunliffe4212"/><ref name="Collins376">Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 376–377</ref>

==== Arab empires ====

===== Rashidun era (632–661) =====
{{main|Rashidun Caliphate}}
{{See also|Succession to Muhammad|Saqifa|Election of Uthman|Assassination of Uthman}}
{{Further|First Fitna|Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest of the Levant|Arab conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb}}
After the death of [[Muhammad]] in 632, [[Rashidun army|Rashidun armies]] launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the [[Caliphate]], or Islamic Empire, one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]]. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire [[Tanukhids]] of [[Mavia (queen)|Queen Mawia]] or the Arab [[Palmyrene Empire]]. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the [[Himyarite]], [[Lakhmids]] or [[Ghassanids]].

During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps">{{cite book|author1=C. T. R. Hewer|title=Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps|author2=Allan Anderson|date=2006|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=978-0334040323|edition=illustrated|page=37}}</ref> These caliphs are [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman]] and [[Ali]], who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and the [[spread of Islam]] beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps" /><ref name="Triana 159">{{Cite book|last=Triana|first=María|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1317423683|pages=159}}</ref>

Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a [[rebellion]] by some tribes who refused to pay [[Zakat]], or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, [[Syria]], and [[Iraq]]. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of [[Muhammad]], succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps" /> Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history. The caliphs established a system of governance that emphasized [[justice]] and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Azyumardi Azra|title=Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context|date=2006|publisher=[[Equinox Publishing (London)]]|isbn=978-9799988812|page=9}}</ref>

===== Umayyad era (661–750 and 756–1031) =====
{{main|Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad Caliphate}}
{{Further|Arab conquest of armenia|Arab conquest of the Maghreb|Muslim conquest of Spain|Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
|Umayyad campaigns in India}}
{{See also|Abbadid|Taifa|Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)|Zengid dynasty|Ikhshidid dynasty|Caliphate of Córdoba|Al-Andalus|}}
In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the [[Banu Umayya|Umayyad dynasty]] and [[Damascus]] was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at [[Ramla]], [[Raqqa]], [[Basra]], [[Kufa]], [[Mosul]] and [[Samarra]], all of which developed into major cities.<ref name="Lunde">{{Cite book|last=Lunde|first=Paul|title=Islam|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Publishing|year=2002|isbn=978-0789487971|location=New York|pages=50–52}}</ref> [[Caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.<ref>John Joseph Saunders, ''A history of medieval Islam'', Routledge, 1965, page 13</ref> Caliph [[Umar II]] strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] came to power and moved the capital to [[Baghdad]].
[[File:La civilització del califat de Còrdova en temps d'Abd-al-Rahman III.jpg|thumb|The [[Caliphate of Córdoba|Caliphate of Còrdova]] during the reign of [[Abd al-Rahman III]]. Receiving the Ambassador by [[Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer]] 1885 CE.]]
Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including [[Punics]], Vandals and Romans. After the [[Abbasid Revolution]], the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.

Their last holding became known as the [[Emirate of Córdoba]]. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]]. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of [[al-Andalus]] architecture and the library of [[Al-Ḥakam II]] which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, [[Al-Andalus]] was divided into [[Taifa|small kingdoms]].<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth [https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264 Historic cities of the Islamic world], Brill, Leyden, 2007, {{ISBN|9004153888}} p. 264</ref>

===== Abbasid era (750–1258 and 1261–1517) =====
{{main|Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Revolution}}
{{Further|Anarchy at Samarra|Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Mongol invasions of the Levant||}}
[[File:Harun al-Rashid receives envoys from Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|[[Harun al-Rashid]] ([[Reign|r.]] 786–809) receiving a delegation sent by [[Charlemagne]] at his court in Baghdad.|left]]
The Abbasids were the descendants of [[Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]], one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same [[Banu Hashim]] clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the [[Battle of the Zab]] effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph [[al-Mansur]] founded the city of [[Baghdad]] and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.<ref name="Lunde" /> The [[Islamic Golden Age]] was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from [[Damascus]] to the newly founded city of [[Baghdad]]. The Abbasids were influenced by the [[Quran]]ic injunctions and [[hadith]] such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.
[[File:001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg|thumb|Malwiyah Mosque, [[Samarra|Samerra]], Iraq]]
During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "[[House of Wisdom]]" in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the [[Fatimid]]s of [[Egypt]] and the [[Umayyad]]s of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as [[Cairo]] and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] rivaling [[Baghdad]].<ref name="Vartan">Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 {{ISBN|081573283X}}</ref> The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when [[Wilayah|Wilayas]] began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]], who [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|conquered Baghdad]] in 1258 and killed the Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]]. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.

===== Fatimid era (909–1171) =====
{{main|Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid Caliphate}}
[[File:Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg|thumb|Bulgarian emperor [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon]] (left) sending envoys to Caliph al-Mahdi (right). 12th-century miniature from the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'']]
The Fatimid caliphate was founded by [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah|al-Mahdi Billah]], a descendant of [[Fatimah]], the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a [[Shia Islam|Shia]] that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in [[Cairo]], and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Syria]], and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The Fatimid state took shape among the [[Kutama]], in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering [[Raqqada]], the [[Aghlabid]] capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of [[Mahdia]] as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to [[Mansouria, Tunisia|Al-Mansuriya]], near [[Kairouan]] in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.
[[File:Azhar mosque.jpg|left|thumb|[[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo|Cairo, Egypt]] in the [[Islamic Cairo|historic Islamic core of the city]], Cairo was established as the new capital of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] in 970]]
The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]]. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] and [[Al-Azhar University]] in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development of [[Schools of Islamic theology|Islamic theology]] and [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]]. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the [[Byzantine Empire]]. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], led by [[Saladin]]. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.<ref name="imamreza.net">Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia, By: Hasan al-Amin, {{Cite web|title=Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt|url=http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616060639/http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|archive-date=16 June 2010|access-date=5 October 2010}}</ref>

===== Ottoman era (1517–1918) =====
{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate}}
{{Further|Arab Revolt|Campaigns of the Arab Revolt|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I||}}
[[File:Sharif Hussein portrait.jpeg|thumb|[[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi]] (1854–1931) was a prominent Arab leader who served as the [[Sharifian Solution|Sharif]] and [[Sharif of Mecca|Emir of Mecca]] from 1908 until 1917. He was a member of the [[Hashemites|Hashemite dynasty]], which claimed descent from [[Muhammad]].|left]]
From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles of [[Battle of Marj Dabiq|Marj Dabiq]] and [[Battle of Ridaniya|Ridaniya]]. They entered the [[Levant]] and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the [[Young Arab Society]]"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the [[Arab Nationalist Movement|Arab nation]] to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the [[Arab Congress of 1913]] in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.<ref>Zeine N. Zeine (1973) ''The Emergence of Arab Nationalism'' (3rd ed.). Delmar, New York: Caravan Books Inc. {{ISBN|0882060007}}. pp. 60–61, 83–92.</ref> However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.<ref name="Choueiri166">Choueiri, pp. 166–168.</ref>
[[File:MPK1-426 Sykes Picot Agreement Map signed 8 May 1916.jpg|thumb|The region covered by the modus vivendi, as agreed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement]]
The [[Arab Revolt]] was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led by [[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Sherif Hussein bin Ali]], the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventual [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|defeat of the Ottoman Empire]]. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.<ref>William Easterly, ''The White Man's Burden'', (2006) p. 295</ref><ref>Jeremy Wilson (1989) ''[[Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorised Biography of T. E. Lawrence]]''. William Heinemann. {{ISBN|978-0434872350}}. p. 548</ref> The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] in the [[aftermath of World War I]], the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]] had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mikaberidze|first=Alexander|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-1598843361|pages=799–802}}</ref>

=== Renaissance ===
{{main|Islamic Golden Age|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Arab Renaissance}}
{{Further|List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|Arab Agricultural Revolution}}
{{multiple image
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The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "''[[Islamic Golden Age]]''", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.<ref name="Saliba">{{cite book|last=Saliba|first=George|title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam|date=1994|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|isbn=0814780237|pages=245, 250, 256–257|author-link=George Saliba}}</ref><ref name="King">{{cite journal|last1=King|first1=David A.|year=1983|title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks|journal=Isis|volume=74|issue=4|pages=531–55|doi=10.1086/353360|s2cid=144315162}}</ref><ref name="Hassan-Decline">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century|encyclopedia=Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, 1–5 August 1994|publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC)|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html|last=Hassan|first=Ahmad Y|date=1996|editor=Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas|pages=351–99|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Siege of Baghdad]] in 1258.<ref name="Tahir Abbas">{{cite book|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=JdC90uc8PfQC|page=9 }}|title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics|date=2011|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1136959608|page=9|access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> During this time, [[List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars|Arab scholars]] made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the [[Renaissance]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=University Libraries {{!}} The University of Iowa|url=https://www.lib.uiowa.edu/|access-date=25 April 2023}}</ref>

The Arabs shared its knowledge and ideas with [[Europe]], including translations of Arabic texts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Al-Tamimi|first=Aymenn Jawad|date=13 May 2022|title=A 13th-Century Text Teaches Us About Arabs and Europeans|url=https://newlinesmag.com/essays/a-13th-century-text-teaches-us-about-arabs-and-europeans/|access-date=26 March 2023|website=New Lines Magazine}}</ref> These translations had a significant impact on [[culture of Europe]], leading to the transformation of many philosophical disciplines in the [[Medieval Latin|medieval Latin world]]. Additionally, the Arabs made original innovations in various fields, including the arts, [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|agriculture]], [[alchemy]], [[music]], and [[pottery]], and [[List of Arabic star names|traditional star names]] such as [[Aldebaran]], scientific terms like ''[[wikt:alchemy|alchemy]]'' (whence also ''[[wikt:chemistry|chemistry]]''), ''[[wikt:algebra|algebra]]'', ''[[wikt:algorithm|algorithm]]'', etc. and names of commodities such as ''[[wikt:sugar|sugar]]'', ''[[wikt:camphor|camphor]]'', ''[[wikt:cotton|cotton]]'', ''[[wikt:coffee|coffee]]'', etc.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biology – The Arab world and the European Middle Ages|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biology/The-Arab-world-and-the-European-Middle-Ages|access-date=26 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=August 1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/arabmuslim-presence-in-medieval-central-europe/DC701B38E873F9B25B995114D47C3711|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=1471-6380|s2cid=162537404}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Arab influence in medieval Europe|date=1996|publisher=Ithaca Press|isbn=086372213X|editor1=Dionisius A. Agius|edition=1st pbk|location=Reading, UK|oclc=38255663|editor2=Richard Hitchcock}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ali|first=Samer M.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794925469|title=Arabic literary salons in the Islamic Middle Ages : poetry, public performance, and the presentation of the past|date=2010|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|isbn=978-0268074654|location=Notre Dame|oclc=794925469}}</ref>

From the medieval scholars of the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]], who had focused on studying [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Arabic]] works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notably [[Averroes]], had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Levant]]. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] and [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]], which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from [[Classical Arabic]] to [[Medieval Latin]] were established in Iberia, most notably the [[Toledo School of Translators]]. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Perry|first1=Marvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKGgoNo4un0C&pg=PA261|title=Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Comprehensive Edition|last2=Jacob|first2=Margaret|last3=Jacob|first3=James|last4=Chase|first4=Myrna|last5=Laue|first5=Theodore Von|date=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0547147017}}</ref>

During the [[Timurid Renaissance]] spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy.<ref>{{Cite web|first=R|last=Carney|date=6 June 2021|title=Timurid Architecture and the Timurid Renaissance|url=https://architectureofcities.com/timurid-architecture|access-date=29 May 2023|website=Architecture of Cities}}</ref> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the [[Arab Renaissance]] was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture.<ref name="Sheehi2004">[[Stephen Sheehi]], [[Foundations of Modern Arab Identity]]. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 [http://florida.theorangegrove.org/og/file/079a66de-df27-a87d-4946-095679fb5de4/1/Sheehi,9781616101343.pdf]</ref><ref>Adnan A. Musallam, [http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm Arab Press, Society and Politics at the End of The Ottoman Era] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719151528/http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm|date=19 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="Pacini1998">{{cite book|last=Pacini|first=Andrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|title=Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0198293880|pages=38, 55|access-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310101859/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=10 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Modern period ===
{{Main|Arab world|Arab League|Charter of the Arab League|Arab Maghreb Union|Gulf Cooperation Council}}
{{See also|Arab nationalism|Pan-Arabism|Arab Union|Arab socialism|}}{{See also|Arab Federation|United Arab Republic|United Arab States|Federation of Arab Republics|Arab Islamic Republic|Union of Arab Republics (1972)}}
[[File:Arab League-Map-WS.PNG|thumb|upright=1.2|A map of the Arab world, formally the '''Arab homeland'''; also known as the '''Arab nation.''']]
The modern period in [[History of the Arabs|Arab history]] refers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, the [[Arab world]] experienced significant [[Politics|political]], [[Economy|economic]], and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of new [[Nation state|nation-states]] in the Arab world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ottoman Empire – The decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1566–1807|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire|access-date=7 July 2021|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Geography of the Modern Middle East and North Africa|url=http://www.middleeastpdx.org/resources/original/geography-of-the-modern-middle-east-and-north-africa/|access-date=7 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185925/http://www.middleeastpdx.org/resources/original/geography-of-the-modern-middle-east-and-north-africa/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of the [[Allies of World War I|Allies in World War I]], to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including the [[Kingdom of Hejaz|independence of the Hejaz]] and the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Teitelbaum|first=Joshua|date=1998|title=Sharif Husayn ibn Ali and the Hashemite Vision of the Post-Ottoman Order: From Chieftaincy to Suzerainty|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283920|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=34|issue=1|pages=103–122|doi=10.1080/00263209808701212|issn=0026-3206|jstor=4283920}}</ref>[[File:Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg|thumb|A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of [[Mahjar|The Pen League]] literal meanings being "the [[Arab diaspora]]"<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hans Wehr|title=[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]|edition=4th|page=1195|author-link=Hans Wehr}}</ref> predecessors in the Nahda movement (or the "[[Nahda|Arab Renaissance]]"). (From left to right): [[Nasib Arida]], [[Kahlil Gibran]], [[Abd al-Masih Haddad]], and [[Mikhail Naimy]].|left]] [[Arab nationalism]] emerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world.<ref name="Requiem">"[http://www.meforum.org/518/requiem-for-arab-nationalism Requiem for Arab Nationalism]" by Adeed Dawisha, ''Middle East Quarterly'', Winter 2003</ref> This movement gained momentum after [[World War II]], leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states. [[Pan-Arabism]] that emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a single [[nation]] or state. It emphasized on a shared [[Arab identity|ancestry, culture, history, language and identity]] and sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.<ref name="smith">Charles Smith, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, in ''International Relations in the Middle East'' by Louise Fawcett, p. 220.</ref><ref name="Sela151">Sela, 151</ref>

The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to the [[Nahda|Arab Renaissance]] or Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], who led the [[1952 Egyptian revolution|1952 revolution]] in Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea of [[Arab socialism]], which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by other [[List of leaders of Middle Eastern and North African states#Leaders of Arab League member states|Arab leaders]], such as [[Hafez al-Assad]], [[Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr]], [[Faisal I of Iraq]], [[Muammar Gaddafi]], [[Saddam Hussein]], [[Gaafar Nimeiry]] and [[Anwar Sadat]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rise and Fall of Pan-Arabism|url=https://www.graduateinstitute.ch/communications/news/rise-and-fall-pan-arabism|access-date=27 March 2023|website=graduateinstitute.ch}}</ref>
[[File:Flag of Hejaz (1917).svg|thumb|The [[Flag of the Arab Revolt|flag]] of the [[Arab Revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]] is a prominent symbol of Arab nationalism. Its design and [[Pan-Arab colors|colors]] are the basis of many of the [[Arab states]]' [[List of Arab flags|flags]]. The [[Pan-Arab colors]] are [[black]], [[white]], [[green]] and [[red]]. Individually, each of the four Pan-Arab colors were intended to represent a certain aspect of the Arabs and their history.]]
Many proposed unions aimed to create a [[Arab Union|unified Arab]] entity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities.<ref name="feb1">{{cite news|date=2 February 1958|title=Egypt, Syria Union Aim at Arab Unity|work=The San Francisco Examiner|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96294492/egypt-syria-union-aims-at-arab-unity/}}</ref> The [[United Arab Republic]] (UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became the [[Egypt|Arab Republic of Egypt]]. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, the [[Arab Federation]], was established between [[Jordan]] and [[Iraq]], but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the [[14 July Revolution]]. A confederation called the [[United Arab States]], which included the UAR and the [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen]], was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961.<ref name="Continuum">"Arab Unity." ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''. Ed. [[Avraham Sela]]. New York: Continuum, 2002.  pp. 160–166.</ref> Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included the [[Federation of Arab Republics]], which was formed by Egypt, [[Libya]], and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed the [[Arab Islamic Republic]] with Tunisia, aiming to include [[Algeria]] and [[Morocco]],<ref>Aghrout, A. & Sutton, K. (1990). Regional Economic Union in the Maghrib. ''The Journal of Modern African Studies'', 28(1), 115</ref> instead the [[Arab Maghreb Union]] was formed in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3QEAQAAIAAJ&q=%22united+states+of+north+africa%22|title=Africa Research Bulletin|date=7 August 1973|publisher=Blackwell}}</ref>

During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. The [[Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab-Israeli conflict]] remains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact of [[globalization]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=19 September 2020|title=The Arab-Israeli conflict is fading|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2020/09/19/the-arab-israeli-conflict-is-fading}}</ref> The [[Arab Spring]] was a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uprisings in the region and ignored indicators|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/11/feb/1080.html|website=Payvand|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=25 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425231858/http://www.payvand.com/news/11/feb/1080.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>