Editing Animal welfare (section)

==Animal welfare issues==
* [[Animal testing]]
* [[Abandoned pets]]
* [[Bambi effect]]
* [[Behavioral enrichment]]
* [[Blood sport]]
* [[Cruelty to animals]]
* [[Feral cat]]
* [[Hunting]]
* [[Overpopulation in companion animals]]
* [[Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals]]
* [[Poaching]]
* [[Puppy mill]]s
* [[Whaling]]
* [[Hypertype]]

===Farmed animals===
{{Further|Veal#Animal welfare|Dairy farming#Animal welfare|Intensive pig farming#Criticism|Broiler#Welfare issues|Egg as food#Living conditions of birds}}

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|caption3=The welfare of egg laying hens in [[battery cages]] (top) can be compared with the welfare of [[free range]] hens (middle and bottom) which are given access to the outdoors. However, animal welfare groups argue that the vast majority of free-range hens are still intensively confined (bottom) and are rarely able to go outdoors.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-24/rspca-on-free-range-court-case/5769542 | title=RSPCA says egg industry is 'misleading the public' on free range | website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | access-date=26 May 2015 | date=24 September 2014 | archive-date=1 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101051034/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-24/rspca-on-free-range-court-case/5769542 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/27/195639341/what-the-rise-of-cage-free-eggs-means-for-chickens | title=What The Rise Of Cage-Free Eggs Means For Chickens | website=[[NPR]] | access-date=26 May 2015 | archive-date=11 February 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211010506/http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/27/195639341/what-the-rise-of-cage-free-eggs-means-for-chickens | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/12/23/370377902/farm-fresh-natural-eggs-not-always-what-they-re-cracked-up-to-be | title=Farm Fresh? Natural? Eggs Not Always What They're Cracked Up To Be | website=[[NPR]] | date=23 December 2014 | access-date=26 May 2015 | last1=Kelto | first1=Anders | archive-date=3 November 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103121635/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/12/23/370377902/farm-fresh-natural-eggs-not-always-what-they-re-cracked-up-to-be | url-status=live }}</ref>
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A major concern for the welfare of farmed animals is [[factory farming]] in which large numbers of animals are reared in confinement at high stocking densities. Issues include the limited opportunities for natural behaviors, for example, in [[battery cage]]s, [[veal]] and [[gestation crate]]s, instead producing [[List of abnormal behaviours in animals|abnormal behaviors]] such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and [[Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity|feather pecking]], and [[Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals|routine invasive procedures]] such as [[debeaking|beak trimming]], [[castration]], and [[Animal identification|ear notching]].More extensive methods of farming, e.g. [[free range]], can also raise welfare concerns such as the [[mulesing]] of sheep and predation of stock by wild animals. [[Biosecurity]] is also a risk with free range farming, as it allows for more contact between livestock and wild animal populations, which may carry [[Zoonosis|zoonoses]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bartlett |first1=Harriet |last2=Holmes |first2=Mark A. |last3=Petrovan |first3=Silviu O. |last4=Williams |first4=David R. |last5=Wood |first5=James L. N. |last6=Balmford |first6=Andrew |date=June 2022 |title=Understanding the relative risks of zoonosis emergence under contrasting approaches to meeting livestock product demand |journal=Royal Society Open Science |language=en |volume=9 |issue=6 |page=211573 |doi=10.1098/rsos.211573 |issn=2054-5703 |pmc=9214290 |pmid=35754996|bibcode=2022RSOS....911573B }}</ref>

Farmed animals are artificially selected for production parameters which sometimes impinge on the animals' welfare. For example, [[broiler]] chickens are bred to be very large to produce the greatest quantity of meat per animal. Broilers bred for fast growth have a high incidence of leg deformities because the large breast muscles cause distortions of the developing legs and pelvis, and the birds cannot support their increased body weight. As a consequence, they frequently become lame or suffer from broken legs. The increased body weight also puts a strain on their hearts and lungs, and [[ascites]] often develop. In the UK alone, up to 20 million broilers each year die from the stress of catching and transporting before reaching the slaughterhouse.This stress can be measured by the high level of heart rate and its cortisol levels, but it can also be seen in their behavior or physical changes. In situations where they are threatened, alone, or can't interact with others, these results are common. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm_animals/poultry/meat_chickens/welfare_issues.aspx |title=Compassion in World Farming – Meat chickens – Welfare issues |publisher=Compassion In World Farming |access-date=22 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023062150/http://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm_animals/poultry/meat_chickens/welfare_issues.aspx |archive-date=23 October 2013 }}</ref> Animal welfare violations have been observed more in intensively bred chicken, pig and cattle species, respectively, and studies and laws have been enacted in this regard. However, animal welfare in semi-intensive species such as sheep and goats is nowadays being scrutinised and gaining importance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arsoy |first=Dilek |date=1 January 2020 |title=Herd management and welfare assessment of dairy goat farms in Northern Cyprus by using breeding, health, reproduction, and biosecurity indicators |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-01990-3 |journal=Tropical Animal Health and Production |language=en |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=71–78 |doi=10.1007/s11250-019-01990-3 |pmid=31325019 |issn=1573-7438}}</ref>

Another concern about the welfare of farmed animals is the method of [[Animal slaughter|slaughter]], especially [[ritual slaughter]]. While the killing of animals need not necessarily involve suffering, the general public considers that killing an animal reduces its welfare.<ref>Phillips 2009. p 10.</ref> This leads to further concerns about premature slaughtering such as [[chick culling]] by the [[Poultry farming|laying hen industry]], in which males are slaughtered immediately after hatching because they are superfluous; this policy occurs in other farmed animal industries such as the production of goat and cattle milk, raising the same concerns.

A 2023 report by the [[Animal Welfare Institute]] found that animal welfare claims by companies selling meat and poultry products lack adequate substantiation in roughly 85% of analyzed cases.<ref>{{cite news |last=Axworthy |first=Nicole |date=10 April 2023 |title=85 Percent of Meat Welfare Claims Lack Substantiation, New Research Finds|url=https://vegnews.com/2023/4/meat-welfare-claims-farm-bill|work=[[VegNews]]|location= |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://awionline.org/sites/default/files/publication/digital_download/Deceptive-Consumer-Labels-2023.pdf|title=Deceptive Consumer Labels |last= |first= |date=2023 |website= |publisher=[[Animal Welfare Institute]]|access-date=17 April 2023 |quote=}}</ref>

===Cetaceans===
{{Further|Whaling|Marine mammals and sonar|Captive killer whales|Beluga whale#Captivity|Dolphinarium#Animal_welfare|Human–animal_communication#Cetaceans}}
Captive cetaceans are kept for display, research and naval operations. To enhance their welfare, humans feed them fish that are dead but are disease-free, protect them from predators and injury, monitor their health, and provide activities for [[behavioral enrichment]]. Some are kept in lagoons with natural soil and vegetated sides.<ref name="Lemieux">{{Cite book |title=Rekindling the waters: the truth about swimming with dolphins |last=Lemieux |first=Leah |date=2009 |publisher=Matador |isbn=978-1-84876-057-8 |location=Leicester |oclc=263296132}}</ref> Most are in concrete tanks which are easy to clean but echo their natural sounds back to them.<ref name="wood">{{Cite web |last=Gray |first=Michael D |author2=John W Doane |author3=Gary W Caille |author4=Peter H Rogers |title=Design of Acoustic Treatments for Use in a Dolphin Research Tank |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267976144 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="pbs">{{Cite episode |title=Dolphins moving from concrete tanks to seaside sanctuary |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/baltimores-dolphins-moving-from-concrete-tanks-to-seaside-sanctuary/ |series=[[PBS NewsHour]] |date=14 June 2016 |language=en-US |journal=[[PBS NewsHour]] |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906035032/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/baltimores-dolphins-moving-from-concrete-tanks-to-seaside-sanctuary/ |url-status=live }}</ref> They cannot develop their own social groups, and related cetaceans are typically separated for display and breeding. [[Military dolphins]] used in naval operations swim free during operations and training and return to pens otherwise.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Beluga: a farewell to whales |last=Béland |first=Pierre |date=1996 |publisher=Lyons & Burford |isbn=1-55821-398-8 |location=New York, NY |oclc=34113108 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/belugafarewellto0000bela }}</ref> Captive cetaceans are trained to present themselves for blood samples, health exams, and noninvasive breath samples above their blow holes.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Kessler |first=Rebecca |date=30 September 2013 |title=A Wealth of Data in Whale Breath |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/01/science/a-wealth-of-data-in-whale-breath.html |url-access=subscription |magazine=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=19 December 2017 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109184640/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/01/science/a-wealth-of-data-in-whale-breath.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Staff can monitor the captives afterward for signs of infection from the procedure.

Research on wild cetaceans leaves them free to roam and make sounds in their natural habitat, eat live fish, face predators and injury, and form social groups voluntarily. However, boat engines of researchers, whale watchers and others add substantial noise to their natural environment, reducing their ability to echolocate and communicate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Houghton |first1=Juliana |last2=Holt |first2=Marla M. |last3=Giles |first3=Deborah A. |last4=Hanson |first4=M. Bradley |last5=Emmons |first5=Candice K. |last6=Hogan |first6=Jeffrey T. |last7=Branch |first7=Trevor A. |last8=VanBlaricom |first8=Glenn R. |date=2 December 2015 |title=The Relationship between Vessel Traffic and Noise Levels Received by Killer Whales (''Orcinus orca'') |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=e0140119 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0140119 |issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1040119H |bibcode-access=free |pmc=4667929 |pmid=26629916 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="veirs">{{Cite web |last1=Veirs |first1=Val |first2=Scott |last2=Veirs |date=21 April 2006 |title=Average levels and power spectra of ambient sound in the habitat of southern resident orcas |url=http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/research/divisions/cb/ecosystem/marinemammal/documents/veirs_noaa_haro_noise_final.pdf |via=NOAA |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906092505/https://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/research/divisions/cb/ecosystem/marinemammal/documents/veirs_noaa_haro_noise_final.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Electric boats|Electric engines]] are far quieter, but are not widely used for either research or whale watching, even for maintaining position, which does not require much power.<ref name="troll">{{Cite magazine |last=Hendricks |first=Jim |date=9 April 2015 |title=Automatic Positioning Systems for Boating and Fishing |url=http://www.boatingmag.com/automatic-positioning-systems-boating-and-fishing |magazine=Boating Magazine |language=en |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=7 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807005922/http://www.boatingmag.com/automatic-positioning-systems-boating-and-fishing |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="falvey">{{Cite magazine |last=Falvey |first=Kevin |date=11 September 2012 |title=An Electric Motor For Boats |url=http://www.boatingmag.com/boats/electric-motor-boats |magazine=Boating Magazine |language=en |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=12 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212192417/http://www.boatingmag.com/boats/electric-motor-boats |url-status=live }}</ref> Vancouver Port offers discounts for ships with quiet propeller and hull designs.<ref name="vanc">{{Cite magazine |date=1 February 2017 |title=Quieting Waters Around the Port of Vancouver |url=http://www.globaltrademag.com/global-logistics/quieting-waters-around-port-vancouver |magazine=Global Trade Magazine |language=en-US |access-date=6 September 2017 |archive-date=7 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907075230/http://www.globaltrademag.com/global-logistics/quieting-waters-around-port-vancouver |url-status=live }}</ref> Other areas have reduced speeds.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.qc.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/infoceans/201410/article7-eng.html |title=Reduction in Risk of Collisions with Whales Deemed Encouraging |date=1 October 2014 |website=www.qc.dfo-mpo.gc.ca Pêches et Océans Canada – Région du Québec – Infocéans |language=en |access-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724202518/http://www.qc.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/infoceans/201410/article7-eng.html |archive-date=24 July 2017 }}</ref> Boat engines also have unshielded propellers, which cause serious injuries to cetaceans who come close to the propeller.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luksenburg |first=Jolanda A. |date=19 February 2014 |title=Prevalence of External Injuries in Small Cetaceans in Aruban Waters, Southern Caribbean |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=e88988 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0088988 |pmid=24586473 |pmc=3929637 |issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2014PLoSO...988988L |hdl=1920/9941 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref> The US Coast Guard has proposed rules on propeller guards to protect human swimmers, but has not adopted any rules.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.propellersafety.com/proposed-propeller-guard-regulations/ |title=Proposed Propeller Guard Regulations |last=Polson |first=Gary |website=www.propellersafety.com |language=en |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906035113/http://www.propellersafety.com/proposed-propeller-guard-regulations/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="seaworthy">{{Cite magazine |date=1 July 2012 |title=USCG's Search For Prop Guard Test Protocol – Seaworthy Magazine – BoatUS |url=http://www.boatus.com/seaworthy/magazine/2012/july/TheCoastGuardsSearchForAProtocolToTestPropGuards.asp |magazine=Seaworthy |language=en |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906035831/http://www.boatus.com/seaworthy/magazine/2012/july/TheCoastGuardsSearchForAProtocolToTestPropGuards.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> The US Navy uses propeller guards to protect manatees in Georgia.<ref name="boice">{{Cite web |url=http://www.umich.edu/~esupdate/library/96.07-08/boice.html |title=Managing Endangered Species on Military Lands |last=Boice |first=L. Peter |website=www.umich.edu |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619040354/http://www.umich.edu/~esupdate/library/96.07-08/boice.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ducted propeller]]s provide more efficient drive at speeds up to 10 knots, and protect animals beneath and beside them, but need grilles to prevent injuries to animals drawn into the duct.<ref name="duct">{{Cite journal |title=Unusual Mortality of Pinnipeds in the United Kingdom Associated with Helical (Corkscrew) Injuries of Anthropogenic Origin |last=Bexton |first=Steve |journal=Aquatic Mammals |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=229–240 |doi=10.1578/am.38.3.2012.229 |year=2012 |bibcode=2012AqMam..38..229B }}</ref><ref name="prop-a-m">{{Cite web |url=http://www.propellersafety.com/5355/legal-propeller/boat-builders-propeller-guards-a-m/ |title=Boat Builders Offering Propeller Guards Part 1 (A-M) :: PropellerSafety.com |website=www.propellersafety.com |language=en |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906040817/http://www.propellersafety.com/5355/legal-propeller/boat-builders-propeller-guards-a-m/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Attaching satellite trackers and obtaining biopsies to measure pollution loads and DNA involve either capture and release, or shooting the cetaceans from a distance with dart guns.<ref name="bik">{{Cite journal |title=Marine mammals harbor unique microbiotas shaped by and yet distinct from the sea |last1=Bik |first1=Elisabeth M. |last2=Costello |first2=Elizabeth K. |date=3 February 2016 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=7 |pages=10516 |language=en |doi=10.1038/ncomms10516 |last3=Switzer |first3=Alexandra D. |last4=Callahan |first4=Benjamin J. |last5=Holmes |first5=Susan P. |last6=Wells |first6=Randall S. |last7=Carlin |first7=Kevin P. |last8=Jensen |first8=Eric D. |last9=Venn-Watson |first9=Stephanie|bibcode=2016NatCo...710516B |pmc=4742810 |pmid=26839246 }}</ref> A cetacean was killed by a fungal infection after being darted, due to either an incompletely sterilized dart or an infection from the ocean entering the wound caused by the dart.<ref name="natgeo">{{Cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/orca-killed-by-satellite-tag-l59/ |title=Orca Killed by Satellite Tag Leads to Criticism of Science Practices |last=Welch |first=Craig |date=6 October 2016 |website=National Geographic |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906090731/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/orca-killed-by-satellite-tag-l59/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Researchers on wild cetaceans have not yet been able to use drones to capture noninvasive breath samples.

Other harms to wild cetaceans include commercial [[whaling]], [[aboriginal whaling]], [[drift netting]], [[ship collision]]s, [[water pollution]], noise from [[Marine mammals and sonar|sonar]] and [[reflection seismology]], [[predator]]s, loss of [[prey]], and [[disease]]. Efforts to enhance the life of wild cetaceans, besides reducing those harms, include offering human music.<ref name="roth">{{Cite book |title=Thousand mile song: whale music in a sea of sound |last=Rothenberg |first=David |date=2008 |publisher=Basic Books, a member of the Perseus Books Group |isbn=978-0-465-07128-9 |location=New York |oclc=182662572 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780465071289 }}</ref><ref name="cbc">{{Cite magazine |date=21 August 2014 |title=Beluga cam captures whale of a time with the Beatles |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/beluga-cam-captures-churchill-s-playful-magical-whales-1.2742982 |magazine=CBC News |language=en |access-date=6 September 2017 |archive-date=30 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530232341/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/beluga-cam-captures-churchill-s-playful-magical-whales-1.2742982 |url-status=live }}</ref> Canadian rules do not forbid playing quiet music, though they forbid "noise that may resemble whale songs or calls, underwater".<ref name="saguenay">{{Cite web |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2002-76/page-3.html#h-18 |title=Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Marine Activities in the Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park Regulations |date=1 January 2017 |language=en |access-date=6 September 2017 |archive-date=7 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907033047/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2002-76/page-3.html#h-18 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Wild animal welfare===
{{See also|Wild animal suffering}}
In addition to cetaceans, the welfare of other wild animals has also been studied, though to a lesser extent than that of animals in farms. Research in wild animal welfare has two focuses: the welfare of wild animals kept in captivity and the welfare of animals living in the wild. The former has addressed the situation of animals kept both for human use, as in [[zoo]]s or [[circus]]es, or in rehabilitation centers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Whitham | first1 = Jessica C. | last2 = Wielebnowski | first2 = Nadja | year = 2013 | title = New directions for zoo animal welfare science | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 147 | issue = 3–4| pages = 247–260 | doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2013.02.004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Iossa | first1 = Graziella | last2 = Soulsbury | first2 = C. D. | last3 = Harris | first3 = Stephen | year = 2009 | title = Are wild animals suited to a travelling circus life? | journal = Animal Welfare | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 129–140 | doi = 10.1017/S0962728600000270 | s2cid = 32259865 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kirkwood | first1 = James K. | last2 = Sainsbury | first2 = Anthony W. | year = 1996 | title = Ethics of interventions for the welfare of free-living wild animals | url = http://www.stafforini.com/docs/Kirkwood%20%26%20Sainsbury%20-%20Ethics%20of%20interventions%20for%20the%20welfare%20of%20free-living%20animals.pdf | journal = Animal Welfare | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = 235–244 | doi = 10.1017/S0962728600018820 | s2cid = 197675072 | access-date = 13 June 2019 | archive-date = 26 July 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726043028/http://www.stafforini.com/docs/Kirkwood%20%26%20Sainsbury%20-%20Ethics%20of%20interventions%20for%20the%20welfare%20of%20free-living%20animals.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> The latter has examined how the welfare of non-domesticated animals living in wild or urban areas are affected by humans or natural factors causing [[wild animal suffering]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kirkwood | first1 = James K | year = 2013 | title = Wild animal welfare | journal = Animal Welfare | volume = 22 | pages = 147–48 | doi=10.7120/09627286.22.1.147}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dorado | first1 = Daniel | year = 2015 | title = Ethical interventions in the wild. An annotated bibliography | url = https://www.ledonline.it/index.php/Relations/article/view/887/724 | journal = Relations: Beyond Anthropocentrism | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 219–238 | doi = 10.7358/rela-2015-002-dora | doi-access = free | access-date = 13 June 2019 | archive-date = 16 May 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190516171613/https://www.ledonline.it/index.php/Relations/article/view/887/724 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.7589/52.2S.S4|pmid = 26845298|title = Advances in Animal Welfare for Free-Living Animals|journal = Journal of Wildlife Diseases|volume = 52|issue = 2s|pages = S4–S13|year = 2016 | last1 = Welfare Supplement | first1 = Editorial Board JWD Wildlife|s2cid = 42993476}}</ref>

Some of the proponents of these views have advocated carrying out conservation efforts in ways that respect the welfare of wild animals,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beausoleil |first1=Ngaio J. |last2=Mellor |first2=David J. |last3=Baker |first3=Liv |last4=Baker |first4=Sandra E. |last5=Bellio |first5=Mariagrazia |last6=Clarke |first6=Alison S. |last7=Dale |first7=Arnja |last8=Garlick |first8=Steve |last9=Jones |first9=Bidda |last10=Harvey |first10=Andrea |last11=Pitcher |first11=Benjamin J. |last12=Sherwen |first12=Sally |last13=Stockin |first13=Karen A. |last14=Zito |first14=Sarah |author1-link=Ngaio Beausoleil|display-authors=3 |editor1-last=Berg |editor1-first=Charlotte L. |title='Feelings and Fitness' Not 'Feelings or Fitness'–The Raison d'être of Conservation Welfare, Which Aligns Conservation and Animal Welfare Objectives |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |date=27 November 2018 |volume=5 |page=296 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00296|doi-access=free |pmid=30538995 |pmc=6277474}}</ref> within the framework of the disciplines of [[compassionate conservation]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/I/bo14398472.html|title=Ignoring Nature No More: The Case For Compassionate Conservation|publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press]]|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-92535-6|editor-last=Bekoff|editor-first=Marc|location=Chicago|access-date=20 April 2020|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726043002/https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/I/bo14398472.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[conservation welfare]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beausoleil|first=Ngaio J.|date=6 February 2020|title=I Am a Compassionate Conservation Welfare Scientist: Considering the Theoretical and Practical Differences Between Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare|journal=Animals|volume=10|issue=2|page=257|doi=10.3390/ani10020257|issn=2076-2615|pmc=7070475|pmid=32041150|doi-access=free}}</ref> while others have argued in favor of improving the welfare of wild animals for the sake of the animals, regardless of whether there are any conservation issues involved at all.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tomasik | first1 = B | year = 2015 | title = The importance of wild animal suffering | url = http://www.ledonline.it/index.php/Relations/article/view/880 | journal = Relations: Beyond Anthropocentrism | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 133–152 | doi = 10.7358/rela-2015-002-toma | doi-access = free | access-date = 17 January 2020 | archive-date = 16 May 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190516173836/https://www.ledonline.it/index.php/Relations/article/view/880 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Horta | first1 = Oscar | year = 2018 | title = Concern for wild animal suffering and environmental ethics: What are the limits of the disagreement? | url = https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ateliers/2018-v13-n1-ateliers04192/1055119ar.pdf | journal = Les Ateliers de l'Éthique | volume = 13 | pages = 85–100 | doi = 10.7202/1055119ar | doi-access = free | access-date = 14 August 2019 | archive-date = 21 April 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190421165644/https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ateliers/2018-v13-n1-ateliers04192/1055119ar.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soryl |first1=Asher A. |last2=Moore |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Seddon |first3=Philip J. |last4=King |first4=Mike R. |date=2021-03-15 |title=The Case for Welfare Biology |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-021-09855-2 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=7 |doi=10.1007/s10806-021-09855-2 |bibcode=2021JAEE...34....7S |issn=1573-322X}}</ref> The welfare economist [[Yew-Kwang Ng]], in his 1995 "Towards welfare biology: Evolutionary economics of animal consciousness and suffering", proposed [[welfare biology]] as a research field to study "living things and their environment with respect to their welfare (defined as net happiness, or enjoyment minus suffering)."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ng|first=Yew-Kwang|date=1 July 1995|title=Towards welfare biology: Evolutionary economics of animal consciousness and suffering|url=http://www.stafforini.com/library/ng-1995.pdf|journal=Biology and Philosophy|language=en|volume=10|issue=3|pages=255–285|doi=10.1007/BF00852469|s2cid=59407458|issn=1572-8404|access-date=1 August 2020|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033620/http://www.stafforini.com/library/ng-1995.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>