Editing Anatolian languages (section)

== Features ==
{{cleanup lang|date=June 2022}}

=== Phonology ===
The phonology of the Anatolian languages preserves distinctions lost in its sister branches of Indo-European. Famously, the Anatolian languages retain the PIE [[laryngeal theory|laryngeals]] in words such as Hittite {{lang|hit|ḫāran-}} (cf. [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὄρνῑς}}, [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] {{lang|lt|eręlis}}, [[Old Norse]] {{lang|non|ǫrn}}, PIE '''{{PIE|*h₃éron-}}''') and Lycian {{lang|xlc|𐊜𐊒𐊄𐊀|italic=no}} {{Transliteration|xlc|χuga}} (cf. [[Latin]] {{lang|la|avus}}, [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] {{lang|prg|awis}}, [[Primitive Irish|Archaic Irish]] {{lang|pgl|ᚐᚃᚔ}} ({{Transliteration|pgl|avi}}), PIE '''{{PIE|*h₂éwh₂s}}'''). The three dorsal consonant series of PIE also remained distinct in Proto-Anatolian and have different reflexes in the Luwic languages, e.g. Luwian where '''{{PIE|*kʷ}}''' > {{lang|xlu|ku-}}, '''{{PIE|*k}}''' > {{lang|xlu|k-}}, and '''{{PIE|*ḱ}}''' > ''{{lang|xlu|z-}}.''<ref name=":0" /> The three-way distinction in Proto-Indo-European stops (i.e. '''{{PIE|*p}}, {{PIE|*b}}, {{PIE|*bʰ}}''') collapsed into a [[Fortis and lenis|fortis-lenis]] distinction in Proto-Anatolian, conventionally written as '''{{IPA|/p/}}''' vs. '''{{IPA|/b/}}'''. In Hittite and Luwian cuneiform, the lenis stops were written as single voiceless consonants while the fortis stops were written as doubled voiceless, indicating a [[Gemination|geminated]] pronunciation. By the first millennium, the lenis consonants seem to have been [[Lenition|spirantized]] in Lydian, Lycian, and Carian.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melchert |first=Harold Craig |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgQowuFZeLUC&q=anatolian+lenis+spirantized&pg=PA21 |title=Anatolian Historical Phonology |date=1994 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=9789051836974 |pages=21 |language=en}}</ref>

The Proto-Anatolian laryngeal consonant *H patterned with the stops in fortition and lenition and appears as geminated {{Transliteration|Xsux|-ḫḫ-|italic=no}} or plain {{Transliteration|Xsux|-ḫ-|italic=no}} in cuneiform. Reflexes of *H in Hittite are interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives and those in Luwian as uvular fricatives based on loans in Ugaritic and Egyptian, as well as vowel-coloring effects. The laryngeals were lost in Lydian but became Lycian {{lang|xlc|𐊐|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xlc|χ}}) and Carian {{lang|xcr|𐊼|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xcr|k}}), both pronounced [k], as well as [[Labialized velar consonant|labiovelars]] —Lycian {{lang|xlc|𐊌|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xlc|q}}), Carian {{lang|xcr|𐊴|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xcr|q}})—when labialized. Suggestions for their realization in Proto-Anatolian include [[Pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricatives]], uvular fricatives, or [[uvular stop]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melchert |first=Harold Craig |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgQowuFZeLUC&q=pharyngeal&pg=PA22 |title=Anatolian Historical Phonology |date=1994 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=9789051836974 |pages=22 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |date=2018 |title=Anatolian Evidence Suggests that the Indo-European Laryngeals *h2 and *h3 Were Uvular Stops |url=https://www.academia.edu/37962233 |journal=Indo-European Linguistics |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=69–94 |doi=10.1163/22125892-00601003 |doi-access=free|hdl=1887/81567 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Verbs ===
Anatolian morphology is considerably simpler than other early Indo-European (IE) languages. The verbal system distinguishes only two tenses (present-future and preterite), two voices (active and [[Mediopassive voice|mediopassive]]), and two moods ([[Realis mood|indicative]] and [[Imperative mood|imperative]]), lacking the [[Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] and [[Optative mood|optative]] moods found in other old IE languages like [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]], [[Sanskrit]], and Ancient Greek. Anatolian verbs are also typically divided into two conjugations: the {{lang|hit|mi}} conjugation and {{lang|hit|ḫi}} conjugation, named for their first-person singular present indicative suffix in Hittite. While the {{lang|hit|mi}} conjugation has clear cognates outside of Anatolia, the {{lang|hit|ḫi}} conjugation is distinctive and appears to be derived from a reduplicated or intensive form in PIE.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Jared |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgA3DwAAQBAJ&pg=252 |title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics |last2=Joseph |first2=Brian |last3=Fritz |first3=Matthias |date=2017 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9783110393248 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Gender ===
The Anatolian [[Grammatical gender|gender]] system is based on two classes: animate and inanimate (also termed common and neuter). Proto-Anatolian almost certainly did not inherit a separate feminine agreement class from PIE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Kim |first=Ronald I. |title=The Feminine Gender in Tocharian and Indo-European |date=January 2009 |url=https://www.academia.edu/23882373 |language=en |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2024}} The two-gender system has been described as a merger of masculine and feminine genders following the phonetic merger of PIE a-stems with o-stems. However the discovery of a group of inherited nouns with suffix '''{{lang|xlc|*-eh<sub>2</sub>}}''' in Lycian and therefore Proto-Anatolian raised doubts about the existence of a feminine gender in PIE. The feminine gender typically marked with {{lang|mis|-ā}} in non-Anatolian Indo-European languages may be connected to a derivational suffix '''{{lang|mis|*-h<sub>2</sub>}}''', attested for abstract nouns and collectives in Anatolian.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Melchert |first=Craig |title=PIE *-eh2 as an "individualizing" Suffix and the Feminine Gender |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/MelchertJena.pdf |via=linguistics.ucla.edu}}</ref> The appurtenance suffix {{lang|mis|*-ih<sub>2</sub>}} is scarce in Anatolian but fully productive as a feminine marker in [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]].<ref name=":1" /> This suggests the Anatolian gender system is the original for IE, while the [[Grammatical gender#Masculine–feminine–neuter contrast|feminine-masculine-neuter]] classification of Tocharian + Core IE languages may have arisen following a sex-based split within the class of topical nouns to provide more precise reference tracking for male and female humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luraghi |first=Silvia |date=2011 |title=The Origin of the Proto-Indo-European Gender System: Typological Considerations |url=https://allegatifac.unipv.it/silvialuraghi/Gender%20FoL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229143242/http://allegatifac.unipv.it/silvialuraghi/Gender%20FoL.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-29 |url-status=live |journal=Folia Linguistica |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=435–463 |doi=10.1515/flin.2011.016|s2cid=59324940 }}</ref>

=== Case ===
Proto-Anatolian retained the nominal case system of Proto-Indo-European, including the vocative, nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, genitive, and locative cases, and innovated an additional [[allative case]].<ref name=":0" /> Nouns distinguish singular and plural numbers, as well as a collective plural for inanimates in Old Hittite and remnant dual forms for natural pairs. The Anatolian branch also has a [[Split ergativity|split-ergative]] system based on gender, with inanimate nouns being marked in the ergative case when the subject of a transitive verb. This may be an areal influence from nearby non-IE [[Ergative–absolutive language|ergative languages]] like Hurrian.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aikhenvald |first1=Alexandra Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sPGe7aBSkpkC&q=laryngeal+fortition+anatolian&pg=PA54 |title=Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics |last2=Dixon |first2=Robert M. W. |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199283088 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Syntax ===
The basic word order in Anatolian is [[Subject–object–verb|subject-object-verb]] except for Lycian, where verbs typically precede objects. Clause-initial particles are a striking feature of Anatolian syntax; in a given sentence, a connective or the first accented word usually hosts a chain of clitics in [[Clitic#Word order|Wackernagel's position]]. Enclitic pronouns, discourse markers, conjunctions, and local or modal particles appear in rigidly ordered slots. Words fronted before the particle chain are topicalized.<ref name=":0" />