Editing Ainu people (section)

===Ainu Culture period (Nibutani period)===
Following the [[Zoku-Jōmon period]], which began in the 5th century BC, and the subsequent [[Satsumon culture|Satsumon period]], from around the 13th century the Ainu established their own culture by absorbing the surrounding culture while engaging in transit trade between Honshu and north-east Asia. This is called the Ainu Culture period or Nibutani period.

Active contact between the [[Yamato people|Wajin]] (ethnonym for Japanese, also known as Yamato people) and the Ainu of [[Ezo]]gashima (now known as [[Hokkaido]]) began in this period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siddle |first=Richard M. |chapter=The Ainu: Indigenous people of Japan |editor-last=Weiner |editor-first=M. |year=1997 |title=Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-41515-218-1 |pages=22–23}}</ref> The Ainu formed a society of hunter-gatherers, surviving mainly by hunting and fishing. They followed a religion that was based on natural phenomena.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html |website=[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA Online]] |publisher=[[PBS]] |title=Island of the Spirits – Origins of the Ainu |access-date=May 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429080550/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html |archive-date=April 29, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>

After the [[Mongols]] [[Mongol conquest of Jin China|conquered the Jin dynasty (1234)]], Karafuto (Sakhalin)-Ainu suffered raids by the [[Nivkh people|Nivkh]] and [[Udege people]]s. In response, the Mongols established an administration post at Nurgan (present-day [[Tyr, Russia]]) at the junction of the [[Amur]] and [[Amgun River|Amgun]] rivers in 1263, and forced the submission of the two peoples.{{sfnm|Nakamura|2010|1p=415|Stephan|1971|2p=21}} In 1264, the Karafuto-Ainu invaded the land of the Nivkh people. They also started an expedition into the Amur region, which was then controlled by the [[Yuan dynasty]], resulting in reprisals by the [[Mongol invasions of Sakhalin|Mongols who invaded Sakhalin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.city.asahikawa.hokkaido.jp/files/hakubutsukagaku/museum/syuzo/59-tatakai/59-tatakai.html |script-title=ja:第59回 交易の民アイヌ VII 元との戦い |title=Dai 59-kai kōeki no min Ainu VII-moto to notatakai |trans-title=No. 59 The Ainu, a trading people VII The battle with the Yuan |language=ja |publisher=[[Asahikawa, Hokkaido|Asahikawa City]] |date=June 2, 2010 |access-date=March 2, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721151652/http://www.city.asahikawa.hokkaido.jp/files/hakubutsukagaku/museum/syuzo/59-tatakai/59-tatakai.html |archive-date=July 21, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ |script-title=ja:公益社団法人 北海道アイヌ協会 |title=Kōeki shadanhōjin Hokkaidō Ainu kyōkai |trans-title=Hokkaido Ainu Association |website=公益社団法人北海道アイヌ協会 |language=ja |access-date=August 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808071913/https://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ |archive-date=August 8, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

From the Nivkh perspective, their surrender to the Mongols essentially established a military alliance against the Ainu who had invaded their lands.{{sfnp|Zgusta|2015|p= 96}} According to the ''[[History of Yuan]]'', a group of people known as the ''Guwei'' ({{zhi|c=骨嵬|p=Gǔwéi}}, the phonetic approximation of the Nivkh name for Ainu) from Sakhalin invaded and fought with the Jilimi (Nivkh people) every year. On November 30, 1264, the Mongols attacked the Ainu.{{sfnp|Nakamura|2010|p= 415}} The Karafuto-Ainu resisted the Mongol invasions but by 1308 had been subdued. They paid tribute to the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]] at posts in Wuliehe, Nanghar, and Boluohe.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|p=133}}

The Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) placed Sakhalin under its "system for subjugated peoples" ({{lang|zh-latn|ximin tizhi}}). From 1409 to 1411 the Ming established an outpost called the [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]] near the ruins of [[Tyr, Russia|Tyr]] on the Siberian mainland, which continued operating until the mid-1430s. There is some evidence that the Ming eunuch Admiral [[Yishiha]] reached Sakhalin in 1413 during one of his expeditions to the lower Amur, and granted Ming titles to a local chieftain.<ref name=tsai>{{cite book |title=Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle |last=Tsai |first=Shih-Shan Henry |year=2002 |orig-date=2001 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |location=Seattle, Wash |isbn=0-295-98124-5 |pages=158–161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU5hBMxNgWQC&pg=PA159 |access-date=June 16, 2010}} Link is to partial text.</ref>

The Ming recruited headmen from Sakhalin for administrative posts such as commander ({{zhi|p=zhǐhuīshǐ|c=指揮使}}), assistant commander ({{zhi|p=zhǐhuī qiānshì|c=指揮僉事}}), and "official charged with subjugation" ({{zhi|p=wèizhènfǔ|c=衛鎮撫}}). In 1431, one such assistant commander, Alige, brought [[marten]] pelts as tribute to the Wuliehe post. In 1437, four other assistant commanders (Zhaluha, Sanchiha, Tuolingha, and Alingge) also presented tribute. According to the ''[[Ming Veritable Records]]'', these posts, like the position of headman, were hereditary and passed down the patrilineal line. During these tributary missions, the headmen would bring their sons, who later inherited their titles. In return for tribute, the Ming awarded them with silk uniforms.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|p=133}}

[[Nivkh people|Nivkh]] women in Sakhalin married Han Chinese Ming officials when the Ming took tribute from Sakhalin and the Amur River region.<ref>{{cite book |first=Wada |last=Sei |year=1938 |script-title=ja:支那の記載に現はれたる黒龍江下流域の土人 |title=Shina no kisai ni arawaretaru Kokuryuko karyuiki no dojin |trans-title=The Natives of the Lower Reaches of the Amur River as Represented in Chinese Records |series=Memoirs of the Research Department of Toyo Bunko |publisher=[[Tōyō Bunko]] |url={{google books URL|mWipQwAACAAJ}}}}</ref><ref name="apjjf.org">{{cite journal |last1=Morris-Suzuki |first1=Tessa |date=November 15, 2020 |title=Indigenous Diplomacy: Sakhalin Ainu (Enchiw) in the Shaping of Modern East Asia (Part 1: Traders and Travellers) |url=https://apjjf.org/2020/22/Morris-Suzuki.html |journal=[[The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus]] |volume=18 |issue=22 |pages= |doi= }}</ref> Due to Ming rule in Manchuria, Chinese cultural and religious influence such as [[Chinese New Year]], the "[[Caishen|Chinese god]]", and motifs such as dragons, spirals, and scrolls spread among the Ainu, Nivkh, and Amur natives such as the [[Udeghe people|Udeghe]]s, [[Ulch people|Ulchi]]s, and [[Nanai people|Nanais]]. These groups also adopted material goods and practices such as agriculture, husbandry, heating, iron cooking pots, silk, and cotton.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&dq=chinese+god+motifs+cotton+iron+silk&pg=PA214 |last=Forsyth |first=James |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised |isbn=0-521-47771-9 |date=1994 |title=A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990 |page=214 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref>

[[File:Carte Generale de l'Empire Chinois et du Japon.png|thumb|right|French map from 1821 shows Sakhalin as part of Qing Empire, and the [[Kuril Islands]] are a part of Japan.]]

The Manchu [[Qing dynasty]], which came to power in China in 1644, called Sakhalin "Kuyedao" ({{Lang-zh|c=庫頁島|p=Kùyè dǎo|l=island of the Ainu}}){{sfnp|Smith|2017|p=83}}{{sfnp|Kim|2019|p=81}}{{sfnp|Nakayama|2015|p= 20}} or "Kuye Fiyaka" ([[Manchu language|{{MongolUnicode|ᡴᡠᠶᡝ<br />ᡶᡳᠶᠠᡴᠠ}}]]).{{sfnp|Schlesinger|2017|p=135}} The [[Manchus]] called it "Sagaliyan ula angga hada" (Island at the Mouth of the Black River).{{sfnp|Narangoa|2014|p=295}} The Qing first asserted influence over Sakhalin after the 1689 [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]], which defined the [[Stanovoy Mountains]] as the border between the Qing and the [[Russian Empire]]s. In the following year the Qing sent forces to the [[Amur]] estuary and demanded that the residents, including the Sakhalin Ainu, pay tribute. This was followed by several further visits to the island as part of the Qing effort to map the area. To enforce its influence, the Qing sent soldiers and mandarins across Sakhalin, reaching most parts of the island except the southern tip. The Qing imposed a fur-tribute system on the region's inhabitants.{{sfnp|Walker|2006|pp= 134–135}}{{sfnp|Sasaki|1999|pp= 87–89}}<ref name="apjjf.org"/>

{{Blockquote|The Qing dynasty ruled these regions by imposing upon them a fur tribute system, just as had the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Residents who were required to pay tributes had to register according to their ''hala'' ({{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠯᠠ}}, the clan of the father's side) and ''gashan'' ({{MongolUnicode|ᡤᠠᡧᠠᠨ}}, village), and a designated chief of each unit was put in charge of district security as well as the annual collection and delivery of fur. By 1750, fifty-six ''hala'' and 2,398 households were registered as fur tribute payers, – those who paid with fur were rewarded mainly with Nishiki silk [[brocade]], and every year the dynasty supplied the chief of each clan and village with official silk clothes (''mangpao'', ''duanpao''), which were the gowns of the mandarin. Those who offered especially large fur tributes were granted the right to create a familial relationship with officials of the Manchu [[Eight Banners]] (at the time equivalent to Chinese aristocrats) by marrying an official's adopted daughter. Further, the tribute payers were allowed to engage in trade with officials and merchants at the tribute location. By these policies, the Qing dynasty brought political stability to the region and established the basis for commerce and economic development.{{sfnp|Sasaki|1999|pp=87–89}}|Shiro Sasaki}}

The Qing dynasty established an office in [[Ningguta]], situated midway along the [[Mudan River]], to handle fur from the lower Amur and Sakhalin. Tribute was supposed to be brought to regional offices, but the lower Amur and Sakhalin were considered too remote, so the Qing sent officials directly to these regions every year to collect tribute and to present awards. By the 1730s, the Qing had appointed senior figures among the indigenous communities as "clan chief" (''hala-i-da'') or "village chief" (''gasan-da'' or ''mokun-da''). In 1732, 6 ''hala'', 18 ''gasban'', and 148 households were registered as tribute bearers in Sakhalin. Manchu officials gave tribute missions rice, salt, other necessities, and gifts during the duration of their mission. Tribute missions occurred during the summer months. During the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (r. 1735–95), a trade post existed at Delen, upstream of Kiji (Kizi) Lake, according to [[Rinzo Mamiya]]. There were 500–600 people at the market during Mamiya's stay there.{{sfnp|Sasaki|1999|p=87}}<ref name="apjjf.org"/>

Local native Sakhalin chiefs had their daughters taken as wives by Manchu officials as sanctioned by the Qing dynasty when the Qing exercised jurisdiction in Sakhalin and took tribute from them.<ref>(Shiro Sasaki, 'A History of the Far East Indigenous Peoples' Transborder Activities Between the Russian and Chinese Empires', Senri Ethnological Studies, vol. 92, 2016, pp. 161‒193.) Sasaki, 'A History of the Far East Indigenous Peoples' Transborder Activities', p. 173.</ref><ref name="apjjf.org"/>