Editing Ahimsa (section)

==Hinduism==

===Ancient Vedic texts===
{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts.<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walli |first1=Koshelya |title=The Conception Of Ahimsa In Indian Thought |date=1974 |publisher=Bharat Manisha |location=Varanasi, India |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.546899/page/n1/mode/2up |ref={{sfnref|Walli}}|pages=113–145}}</ref> The oldest scriptures indirectly mention {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}. Over time, the Hindu scripts revised ritual practices, and the concept of {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} was increasingly refined and emphasized until {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} became the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about {{BCE|1000-600}}). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the [[Rig Veda]] uses the words {{transliteration|sa|[[Satya]]}} (truthfulness) and {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} in a prayer to deity Indra;<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|url=http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२|title=Rigveda 10.22|quote={{lang|sa|अस्मे ता त इन्द्र सन्तु '''सत्याहिंस'''न्तीरुपस्पृशः । विद्याम यासां भुजो धेनूनां न वज्रिवः ॥१३॥}}}}
|2={{harvnb|Tähtinen|1964}}{{page needed|date=July 2023}}
|3=For another occurrence of {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} in Rigveda, see {{cite web|url=http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.६४|title=Rigveda 5.64.3}} and {{cite web|url=http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.१४१|title=Rigveda 1.141.5}}
}}</ref> later, the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]] dated to be between {{BCE|1200}} and {{BCE|900}}, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book | title= Vishayasuchi -see the translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE|chapter-url=http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html|chapter=Himsa na Kartavya: To do no harm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017133837/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html |archive-date=17 October 2013}}
|2=For other occurrences of {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} in Vedic literature, see {{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/vedicconcordance00bloouoft/page/151/mode/1up?view=theater 151]|title=A Vedic Concordance|author-link=Maurice Bloomfield|first=Maurice|last=Bloomfield|date=1906|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard University Press|series=Harvard Oriental Series|volume=10}}
}}</ref>{{sfn|Talageri|2000}}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}{{sfn|Talageri|2010}}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}

The term {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} appears in the text [[Taittiriya Shakha]] of the [[Yajurveda]] (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|p=2}} It occurs several times in the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' in the sense of "non-injury".<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">{{cite book | first=Henk M.|last=Bodewitz|editor-last1=Houben | editor-first1=Jan E. M. | editor-last2=Kooij | editor-first2=Karel Rijk van | title=Violence Denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence in "South Asian" cultural history | publisher=BRILL | date=1999 | isbn=978-90-04-11344-2 | page=30}}</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals ({{transliteration|sa|pashu-Ahimsa}}), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about {{BCE|1500-1200}}.{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=2–3}}{{sfn|Talageri|2000}}{{page needed|date=November 2023}}{{sfn|Talageri|2010}}{{page needed|date=November 2023}} The [[Chandogya Upanishad]] (3.17.4) includes ahimsa in its list of virtues.<ref name="VD">{{Cite book |last1=van Kooij |first1=K.R. |last2=Houben |first2=Jan E.M. |year=1999 |title=Violence denied: Violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence in South Asian cultural history |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, NL |pages=117, 123, 129, 164, 212, 269 |isbn=90-04-11344-4}}</ref>

John Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book | last=Bowker | first=John | title=Problems of Suffering in Religions of the World | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=10 April 1975 | isbn=978-0-521-09903-5 | page=233}}</ref> Kaneda gives examples of the word {{transliteration|sa|pashu-Ahimsa}} in these Upanishads.<ref name=kaneda2008>{{cite book | last=Kaneda|first=T.|chapter=Shanti, the peacefulness of mind| editor-last=Eppert | editor-first=Claudia | editor-last2=Wang | editor-first2=Hongyu | title=Cross-cultural Studies in Curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights | publisher=Routledge | date=2008 | isbn=978-0-8058-5673-6 | pages=171–192}}</ref> Other scholars<ref name="arapura"/><ref name=Izawa /> suggest {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} as an ethical concept started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.

The [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], dated to {{BCE|800 to 600}}, one of the oldest [[Upanishads]], has the earliest evidence for the [[Vedas|Vedic era]] use of the word {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" ({{transliteration|sa|sarvabhuta}}), and the practitioner of {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is said to escape from the cycle of [[Reincarnation|rebirths]] (CU 8.15.1).{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=2–5}}<ref>English translation: {{harvnb|Schmidt|1968|p=631}}</ref> Some scholars state that this mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book |first1=M.K|last1=Sridhar|first2=Puruṣottama|last2=Bilimoria|editor-last=Bilimoria | editor-first=Purusottama | editor-last2=Prabhu | editor-first2=Joseph | editor-last3=Sharma | editor-first3=Renuka M. | title=Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges | publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. | date=2007 | isbn=978-0-7546-3301-3|page=315}}</ref> Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jeffery D.|last=Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ|year=2009|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-625-5|pages=31–33}}</ref>{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=22–24, 73–83}}

Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}, along with {{transliteration|sa|Satyavacanam}} (truthfulness), {{transliteration|sa|Ārjavam}} (sincerity), {{transliteration|sa|[[Dāna]]m}} (charity), and {{transliteration|sa|[[Tapas (Indian religions)|Tapo]]}} (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).<ref name=arapura/><ref>Ravindra Kumar (2008), Non-violence and Its Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-81-7933-159-0}}, see pages 11–14</ref>

The Sandilya [[Upanishad]] lists ten forbearances: {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}, {{transliteration|sa|Satya}}, {{transliteration|sa|Asteya}}, {{transliteration|sa|Brahmacharya}}, {{transliteration|sa|Daya}}, {{transliteration|sa|Arjava}}, {{transliteration|sa|Kshama}}, {{transliteration|sa|Dhriti}}, {{transliteration|sa|Mitahara}}, and {{transliteration|sa|Saucha}}.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Swami|first=P.|year=2000|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upaniṣads|volume=3 (S–Z)|publisher=Sarup & Sons|pages= 630–631}}
|2={{cite book|last1=Ballantyne|first1=J.R.|last2=Yogīndra|first2=S.|year=1850|title=A Lecture on the Vedánta: Embracing the Text of the Vedánta-sára|publisher=Presbyterian mission press}}
}}</ref> According to Kaneda,<ref name=kaneda2008/> the term {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming any living creature by deeds, words, and thoughts.

===The Epics===
{{see also | Dharmo Rakshati Rakshitah | Yato Dharmastato Jayah }}

The [[Mahabharata]], one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa Paramo Dharma}} ({{lang|sa|अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः}}), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, [[Anushasana Parva]] has the verse:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm |title=Mahabharata 13.117.37–38 |access-date=7 August 2013 |archive-date=13 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013100312/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
<blockquote><poem>{{lang|sa|अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः।
अहिंसा परमं दानम् अहिंसा परमस तपः।
अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञः तथाहिस्मा परं बलम्।
अहिंसा परमं मित्रम् अहिंसा परमं सुखम्।
अहिंसा परमं सत्यम् अहिंसा परमं श्रुतम्॥}}
</poem></blockquote>
The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} in Hinduism, and literally means:
<blockquote><poem>
{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the highest {{transliteration|sa|[[Dharma]]}}, {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the highest self-control, 
{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the greatest gift, {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the best practice, 
{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the highest sacrifice, {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the finest strength, 
{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the greatest friend, {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the greatest happiness, 
{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the highest truth, and {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is the greatest teaching.<ref name=CCEN>{{cite book|last=Chapple|first=Christopher|chapter=Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition|series=Recent Research in Psychology|title=Perspectives on Nonviolence|year=1990|editor-first=V.K.|editor-last=Kool|pages=168–177|location=New York|publisher=Springer}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.hinduismtoday.com/magazine/january-february-march-2007/2007-01-what-is-hinduism-6/|chapter=Ahimsa: To Do No Harm|date=January 2007|author=Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami|title=What is Hinduism|pages=359–361}}</ref>
</poem></blockquote>
Some other examples where the phrase {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa Paramo Dharma}} are discussed include [[Adi Parva]], [[Vana Parva]], and [[Anushasana Parva]]. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the [[Just war theory|theories of just war]]. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.<ref name=fischer1954>{{cite book|last=Fischer|first=Louis|title=Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhihislifemes00fisc|publisher=Mentor|location=New York|year=1954|page=[https://archive.org/details/gandhihislifemes00fisc/page/17/mode/1up 17]|isbn=978-0-451-62014-9 }}</ref>

===Self-defence, criminal law, and war===
The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussing what people who practice the virtue of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} can and must do when faced with war, violent threat, or the need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, ideas of reasonable self-defense, and views of proportionate punishment.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996>{{cite book | last=Klostermaier | first=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus K. Klostermaier| chapter=Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism|editor-last2=Brock | editor-first2=Peter | editor-last1=Dyck | editor-first1=Harvey Leonard | title=The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective | publisher=University of Toronto Press | date=1996 | isbn=978-0-8020-0777-3 | pages=230–234}}</ref> [[Arthashastra]] discusses, among other things, what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.<ref name=robinson2003>{{cite book | last1=Robinson | first1=Paul F. | last2=Robinson | first2=Paul | title=Just War in Comparative Perspective | publisher=Routledge | date=2003 | isbn=0-7546-3587-2 | pages=114–125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Coates|first=B.E.|year=2008|title=Modern India's Strategic Advantage to the United States: Her Twin Strengths in Himsa and Ahimsa |journal=Comparative Strategy|volume=27|number=2|pages=133–147|doi=10.1080/01495930801944669 |s2cid=153672869 }}</ref>

; War
The precepts of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} in Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with{{ambiguous|reason=unclear if this means that Hinduism, with S&TD, requires this; or if S&TD is the method for avoiding war; or if S&TD is the alternative to war|date=July 2023}} sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, and its method lawful.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=robinson2003/> War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Subedi|first=S.P.|year=2003|title=The Concept in Hinduism of 'Just War'|journal=Journal of Conflict and Security Law|volume=8|number=2|pages=339–361|doi=10.1093/jcsl/8.2.339 }}</ref> All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not to cause misery to the opponent; for example, the use of arrows is allowed, but the use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment{{Specify|reason=what sort, in what way, to what end?|date=July 2023}} in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed; they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment.<ref name=robinson2003/> Children, women, and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996/>

; Self-defence
Different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered in matters of self-defense. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}, and Hindu scriptures support violence against an armed attacker.{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=96, 98–101}}<ref>Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.</ref> {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} is not meant to imply [[pacifism]].{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=91–93}}

Alternative theories of self-defense, inspired by {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}, build principles similar to ideas of just war. [[Aikido]], pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such set of principles for self-defense. [[Morihei Ueshiba]], the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf |title=The Role of Teachers in Martial Arts; see page 48, 2nd column |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412060316/http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf |archive-date=12 April 2019 |first=Nebojša|last=Vasic |year=2011 |journal=Sport SPA |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=47–51}}</ref> According to this interpretation of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} in self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error, or fear, attack others or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the attacker's aggression and avoid conflict. The best defense is one with which the victim is protected and the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} and [[Aikido]], there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions, and aggressive strivings of the attacker.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|first=Donald|last=Levine|title=Social Conflict, Aggression, and the Body in Euro-American and Asian Social Thought|url=http://aiki-extensions.org/pubs/conflict-body_text.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174614/http://www.aiki-extensions.org/pubs/conflict-body_text.pdf|archive-date=2006-01-16|year=2004|journal=International Journal of Group Tensions|volume=24|number=3|pages=205–217}}
|2={{cite book|last=Ueshiba|first=Kisshōmaru|year=2004|title=The Art of Aikido: Principles and Essential Techniques|publisher=Kodansha International|isbn=4-7700-2945-4}}
}}</ref>

; Criminal law
Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed and that a king, in particular, is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his brothers and sons.{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=96, 98–99}}

Other scholars<ref name=klos1996/><ref name=robinson2003/> conclude that Hindu scriptures suggest that sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional, and not cruel.

===Non-human life===
[[File:ValluvarStatue SanctuaryAtTiruvallur.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The 5th-century CE Tamil scholar [[Valluvar]], in his ''[[Tirukkural]]'', taught {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} and moral vegetarianism as personal virtues. The plaque in this statue of Valluvar at an animal sanctuary at [[Tiruvallur]] describes the Kural's teachings on {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} and [[non-killing]], summing them up with the definition of [[veganism]].]]
The Hindu precept of "cause no injury" applies to [[animal]]s and all life forms. This precept is not found in the oldest verses of Vedas ({{BCE|1500–1000}}), but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas in post-Vedic period.<ref name=chapple16>{{cite book | last=Chapple | first=Christopher Key | title=Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions | publisher=State University of New York Press | date=1993 | isbn=0-7914-1498-1 | pages=16–17}}</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1964}} In the oldest layer of the Vedas, such as the ''Rigveda'', ritual sacrifices of animals and cooking of meat to feed guests are mentioned. This included goat, ox, horse, and others.{{sfn|Brown|1964|pp=246–247}} However, the text is not uniform in its prescriptions. Some verses praise meat as food, while other verses in the Vedas recommend "abstention from meat", in particular, "beef".{{sfn|Brown|1964|pp=246–247}}<ref>{{cite book | last=Rosen | first=Steven | title=Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and Animal Rights | publisher=Lantern Books | date=2004 | isbn=1-59056-066-3 | pages=19–39}}</ref> According to Marvin Harris, the Vedic literature is inconsistent, with some verses suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat-eating.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marvin|last=Harris| editor-last=Whitten | editor-first=Phillip | editor-last2=Hunter | editor-first2=David E. | title=Anthropology: contemporary perspectives|edition=6th | publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman | date=1990 | isbn=0-673-52074-9 | pages=201–204 |url=http://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF%20files/RT%20201%20India%27s%20Sacred%20Cow.pdf|chapter= India's sacred cow|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329091317/http://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF |archive-date=29 March 2017 }}</ref>

Hindu texts dated to {{BCE|1st millennium}} initially mention meat as food, then evolve to suggest that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, thereafter evolving to the stance that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots, and fruits alone.<ref name=chapple16/><ref>[[Baudhayana]] Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; [[Apastamba]] Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26–2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12.</ref> The late Vedic-era literature ({{BCE|pre-500}}) condemns all killings of men, cattle, birds, and horses, and prays to god [[Agni]] to punish those who kill.<ref>{{citation |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |title=Sacred Animals of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DF_af8_547EC&pg=PT107 |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-81-8475-182-6 |pages=15, 33}}</ref>

Later texts of Hinduism declare {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} as one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against {{transliteration|sa|dharma}} (moral life). Finally, the discussion in the Upanishads and Hindu Epics<ref>Manu Smriti 5.30, 5.32, 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207), 3.199.5 (3.207.5), 3.199.19–29 (3.207.19), 3.199.23–24 (3.207.23–24), 13.116.15–18, 14.28; Ramayana 1-2-8:19</ref> shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way, which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}, given the constraints of life and human needs.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 592–593; Mahabharata 13.115.59–60, 13.116.15–18.</ref> The [[Mahabharata]] permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. [[Sushruta Samhita]], a Hindu text written in {{BCE|the 3rd or 4th century}}, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women,<ref>{{cite book |author=Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna |year=1907|title=An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita; see Chapter starting on page 469; for discussion on meats and fishes, see page 480 and onwards |volume=I.2 }}</ref><ref>Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25.</ref> and the [[Charaka Samhita]] describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.<ref>Sutrasthana 27.87.</ref>

Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus.<ref>Mahabharata 3.199.11–12 (3.199 is 3.207 elsewhere); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17; Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13–14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1).</ref> Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]] lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 572–577 (for the Manusmṛti) and pp. 585–597 (for the Mahabharata); {{harvnb|Tähtinen|1976|pp=34–36}}</ref><ref>The Mahabharata and the Manusmṛti (5.27–55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm |url-status=live |title=Mahabharata 12.260—(12.260 is 12.268 according to another count) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910073935/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm |archive-date=10 September 2007 }}; 13.115–116; 14.28.</ref> In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm |url-status=live |title=Mahabharata 3.199 —(3.199 is 3.207 according to another count) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929130620/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm |archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref>

Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=39–43}}<ref>Alsdorf p. 589–590</ref>{{sfn|Schmidt|1968|pp=634–635, 640–643}}

The ancient Hindu texts discuss {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits ([[sannyasa|sannyasins]]) were urged to live on a [[fruitarian]] diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.{{sfn|Schmidt|1968|pp=637–639}}<ref>Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Preece | first=Rod |author-link=Rod Preece| title=Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities | publisher=University of British Columbia Press | date=2005 | isbn=978-0-7748-0725-8 | pages=212–217}}</ref> Scholars{{r|CCEN}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Horn | first=Gavin Van | title=Hindu Traditions and Nature: Survey Article | journal=Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology | publisher=Brill | volume=10 | issue=1 | year=2006 | jstor=43809321 | pages=5–39| doi=10.1163/156853506776114474 }}</ref> claim the principles of ecological nonviolence are innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} as its cardinal virtue.

The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the ''[[Tirukkural]],'' written in three volumes, likely between {{CE|450 and 500}}, dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its [[Aram (Kural book)|first volume]] to the virtue of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}, emphasizing on [[moral vegetarianism]] and [[non-killing]] ({{transliteration|sa|kollamai}}).<ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03591-5|pages=156–157}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Krishna | first = Nanditha | title = Hinduism and Nature | publisher = Penguin Random House | series = | volume = | edition = | date = 2017 | location = New Delhi | page = 264 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gp1IDwAAQBAJ&dq=ahimsa+and+Tirukkural&pg=PT131 | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-93-8732-654-5}}</ref> However, the ''Tirukkural'' also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement "death sentence for the wicked".<ref name=Ananthanathan315>{{cite journal|title= Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural| author= A.K. Ananthanathan| journal= East and West| volume=44 | pages= 315–326| number= 2/4 |year=1994 |jstor= 29757156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Robinson|title=Just War in Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2lBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT169 |year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-92452-8|pages=169–170}}</ref>

In 1960, [[H. Jay Dinshah]] founded the [[American Vegan Society]] (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}.<ref name=AVS50>{{Cite magazine|last=Dinshah|first=Freya|year=2010|title=American Vegan Society: 50 Years|url=http://www.americanvegan.org/AV1001.pdf|magazine=American Vegan|series=2|publisher=[[American Vegan Society]]|location=Vineland, NJ|volume=10|issue=1 (Summer 2010)|page=31|issn=1536-3767|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722213651/http://www.americanvegan.org/AV1001.pdf|archive-date=22 July 2011|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>Stepaniak 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ia5eZIlgLUC&pg=PA6 6–7]; Preece 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uMnubkF5HjAC&pg=PA323 323].</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americanvegan.org/history.htm|title=History|publisher=American Vegan Society|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827105211/http://www.americanvegan.org/history.htm|archive-date=27 August 2014|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref>

===Modern times===
[[File:Portrait Gandhi.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Gandhi]] promoted the principle of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} by applying it to politics.]]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as [[Shrimad Rajchandra]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Pyarelal|title=Mahatma Gandhi-the Early Phase|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8P0KAQAAIAAJ|year=1965|publisher=Navajivan Publishing House}}</ref> and [[Swami Vivekananda]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Religious Vegetarianism|editor-link1=Kerry S. Walters|editor-last1=Walters|editor-first1=Kerry S.|editor-first2=Lisa|editor-last2= Portmess|location=Albany|year=2001|pages=50–52}}</ref> emphasised the importance of Ahimsa.

[[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] successfully promoted the principle of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} to all spheres of life, in particular to politics ({{transliteration|sa|[[Swaraj]]}}).{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=116–124}} His non-violent resistance movement {{transliteration|sa|[[satyagraha]]}} had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries, and influenced the leaders of various [[civil and political rights]] movements such as the American [[civil rights movement]]'s [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[James Bevel]]. In Gandhi's thought, {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, and unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty, and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}.<ref name="XXII-XLVII 1986, p. 11-12">{{harvnb|Walli|pp=XXII-XLVII}}; {{cite book|last=Borman |first= William|title=Gandhi and Nonviolence |location=Albany|year=1986|pages=11–12}}</ref> Gandhi believed {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} to be a creative energy force, encompassing all interactions leading one's self to find {{transliteration|sa|satya}}, "Divine Truth".<ref>{{citation|last=Jackson|pages=39–54|title=Religion East & West|year=2008}}</ref> [[Sri Aurobindo]] criticized the Gandhian concept of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.{{sfn|Tähtinen|1964|pp=115–116}}

Gandhi took the religious principle of ''ahimsa,'' and turned it into a non-violent tool for mass action. He used it to fight not only colonial rule, but social evils such as racial discrimination and untouchability as well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - Ethics - War: Non-violence |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/war/against/nonviolence.shtml#:~:text=Gandhi%20took%20the%20religious%20principle,discrimination%20and%20untouchability%20as%20well. |access-date=2024-07-18 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Gandhi stated his belief that "{{transliteration|sa|[a]himsa}} is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam."<ref name=par/> He added, "Nonviolence is common to all religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism (I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism)."<ref name=par/> When questioned whether violence and nonviolence are taught in Quran, he stated, "I have heard from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use of nonviolence. (...&nbsp;The) argument about nonviolence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation, not necessary for my thesis."<ref name=par>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas K.|editor-last1=Prabhu|editor-first1=R.K.|editor-last2=Rao|editor-first2=U.R.|year=1966|url=http://gandhiashramsevagram.org/pdf-books/mind-of-mahatma-gandhi.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://gandhiashramsevagram.org/pdf-books/mind-of-mahatma-gandhi.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi|publisher=Encyclopedia of Gandhi's Thoughts|pages=120–121}}</ref><ref name=mgarat>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas K.|year=1962|title=All Religions are True|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|page=128}}
|2={{cite book|last=Banshlal Ramnauth |first= Dev|year=1989|title=Mahatma Gandhi: Insight and Impact|publisher=Indira Gandhi Centre for Indian Culture & Mahatma Gandhi Institute|page=48}} }}</ref>

Studying {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}'s history and philosophy influenced [[Albert Schweitzer]]'s principle of "reverence for life". He commended Indian traditions for their ethics of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}, considering the prohibition against killing and harming "one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of humankind". However, he noted that "not-killing" and "not-harming" might be unfeasible in certain situations, like self-defense, or ethically complex, as in cases of prolonged famine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schweitzer|first=Albert|url=https://archive.org/stream/indianthoughtsan027860mbp#page/n95/mode/2up|title=Indian Thought and its Development|location=London|year=1956|pages=82–83|publisher=The Beacon Press}}</ref>

===Yoga===
{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} means "abstinence from malice towards all living creatures in every way and at all times".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radha Kumud |title=Ancient Indian education: brahmanical and Buddhist |date=1998 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0423-4 |edition=[5.] repr |location=Delhi |pages=313}}</ref> ''Ahimsa'' is imperative for practitioners of [[Patañjali]]'s eight limb [[Raja yoga]] system. It is included in the first limb and is the first of five {{transliteration|sa|[[Yamas]]}} (self restraints) which, together with the second limb, make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy.<ref name="pyogas3t">Sanskrit Original with '''Translation 1''': {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n6/mode/2up |title=The Yoga Philosophy, with Bhojaraja commentary |translator-first=Tookaram|translator-last=Tatya |publisher=The Theosophical Society's Publications |location=Bombay |year=1885}}
*'''Translation 2''': {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n4/mode/2up |title=The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa, with notes |translator-first=Gangânâtha|translator-last=Jhâ |date=1907 |publisher=Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund}}
*'''Translation 3''': {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/mode/2up |title=The Yogasutras of Patanjali |translator-first=Charles|translator-last=Johnston |year=1912 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Lochtefeld | first=James G. | chapter=Yama (2)|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|volume=2 (N–Z) | publisher=Rosen Publishing Group | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 | page= 777}}</ref> Commentators on the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]] II.30 emphasize that ''ahimsa'' is the most important and foundational ''yama'' of the five ''yamas''. [[Vijnanabhiksu]] uses the analogy of an elephant to convey its importance, while [[Vyasa]] defines it as refraining from harming any living being at any time, emphasizing that all other ''yamas'' support and purify ''ahimsa''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin F. |title=The Yoga sūtras of Patañjali: a new edition, translation and commentary with insights from the traditional commentators |date=2009 |publisher=North Point Press |isbn=978-0-86547-736-0 |location=New York |pages=243–248}}</ref>

{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} is also one of the ten {{transliteration|sa|Yamas}} in [[Hatha Yoga]] according to verse 1.1.17 of its classic manual ''[[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]]''.<ref>Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|अथ यम-नियमाः '''अहिंसा''' सत्यमस्तेयं बरह्मछर्यं कष्हमा धॄतिः <nowiki>|</nowiki> दयार्जवं मिताहारः शौछं छैव यमा दश <nowiki>||</nowiki> १७ <nowiki>||</nowiki>}}<br />English Translation: {{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hyp/hyp03.htm |url-status=live|chapter=1. On Âsanas|at=1.1.17|title=Hatha Yoga Pradipika|translator-first=Pancham|translator-last=Sinh|year=1914|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100405092859/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hyp/hyp03.htm |archive-date=5 April 2010 }}</ref> The significance of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}} as the first restraint in the first limb of Yoga ({{transliteration|sa|Yamas}}) is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga. It is a precursor to {{transliteration|sa|Asana}}, implying that success in {{transliteration|sa|Yogasana}} can be had only if the self is purified in [[Manasa, vacha, karmana|thought, word, and deed]] through the self-restraint of {{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}.