Editing Acrylamide (section)

==Toxicity and carcinogenicity==
[[File:N-(D-glucos-1-yl)-L-asparagine.png|thumb|none|''N''-(<small>D</small>-glucos-1-yl)-<small>L</small>-asparagine, precursor to acrylamide in cooked food<ref>{{cite journal|title=Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Safety of Acrylamide. A Review|author=Mendel Friedman|journal=J. Agric. Food Chem.|year=2003|volume=51|issue=16|pages=4504–4526|doi=10.1021/jf030204+|pmid=14705871}}</ref>]]

Acrylamide can arise in some cooked foods via a series of steps by the reaction of the amino acid [[asparagine]] and glucose. This condensation, one of the [[Maillard reaction]]s, followed by dehydrogenation produces ''N''-(<small>D</small>-glucos-1-yl)-<small>L</small>-asparagine, which upon [[pyrolysis]] generates some acrylamide.

The discovery in 2002 that some cooked foods contain acrylamide attracted significant attention to its possible biological effects.<ref name=Ullmann>{{Ullmann|doi=10.1002/14356007.a01_161.pub2|title=Acrylic Acid and Derivatives|year=2003|last1=Ohara|first1=Takashi|last2=Sato|first2=Takahisa|last3=Shimizu|first3=Noboru|last4=Prescher|first4=Günter|last5=Schwind|first5=Helmut|last6=Weiberg|first6=Otto|last7=Marten|first7=Klaus|last8=Greim|first8=Helmut|isbn=3527306730}}</ref> [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]], [[National Toxicology Program|NTP]], and the [[EPA]] have classified it as a probable carcinogen, although [[epidemiological]] studies (as of 2019) suggest that dietary acrylamide consumption does not significantly increase people's risk of developing [[cancer]].<ref name=acs/>

===Europe===
According to the [[EFSA]], the main toxicity risks of acrylamide are "[[Neurotoxicity]], adverse effects on male reproduction, [[developmental toxicity]] and [[carcinogen]]icity".<ref name=cruk/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Scientific Opinion on acrylamide in food |journal=EFSA Journal |date=June 2015 |volume=13 |issue=6 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4104 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, according to their research, there is no concern on non-[[neoplastic]] effects. Furthermore, while the relation between consumption of acrylamide and cancer in rats and mice has been shown, it is still unclear whether acrylamide consumption has an effect on the risk of developing cancer in humans, and existing [[epidemiological method|epidemiological studies]] in humans are very limited and do not show any relation between acrylamide and cancer in humans.<ref name=cruk/><ref>{{cite web |title=Acrylamide and Cancer Risk |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/acrylamide-fact-sheet |publisher=[[National Cancer Institute]] (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) |date=December 5, 2017 |access-date=April 23, 2018}}</ref> Food industry workers exposed to twice the average level of acrylamide do not exhibit higher cancer rates.<ref name=cruk/>

===United States===
Acrylamide is classified as an [[List of extremely hazardous substances|extremely hazardous substance]] in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. [[Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act]] (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.<ref name="gov-right-know">{{Cite journal |title=40 C.F.R.: Appendix A to Part 355—The List of Extremely Hazardous Substances and Their Threshold Planning Quantities |url=http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2008/julqtr/pdf/40cfr355AppA.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Edocket.access.gpo.gov |edition=July 1, 2008 |publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|Government Printing Office]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225051612/http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2008/julqtr/pdf/40cfr355AppA.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2012 |access-date=October 29, 2011}}</ref>

Acrylamide is considered a potential occupational carcinogen by U.S. government agencies and classified as a [[List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens|Group 2A carcinogen]] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]].<ref name=NIOSHskin>{{Cite journal|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2011-139/pdfs/2011-139.pdf|title = NIOSH skin notation (SK) profile: acrylamide [CAS No. 79-06-1].|last = Dotson|first = GS|date = April 2011|journal = DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2011-139}}</ref> The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] and the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] have set dermal occupational exposure limits at 0.03&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> over an eight-hour workday.<ref name=idlh>{{cite web|author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|title=Documentation for Immediately Dangerous To Life or Health Concentrations (IDLHs) - Acrylamide|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/79061.html|year=1994}}</ref>

===Opinions of health organizations===
Baking, grilling or broiling food causes significant concentrations of acrylamide. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; [[Cancer Research UK]] categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".<ref name="cruk">{{cite web |date=15 October 2021 |title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108152334/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |archive-date=8 Nov 2020 |publisher=Cancer Research UK}}</ref>

The [[American Cancer Society]] says that [[laboratory studies]] have shown that acrylamide is likely to be a carcinogen, but that {{as of|lc=yes|2019}} evidence from [[epidemiological]] studies suggests that [[dietary]] acrylamide is unlikely to raise the risk of people developing most common types of cancer.<ref name="acs">{{cite web |date=11 February 2019 |title=Acrylamide and Cancer Risk |url=https://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention/chemicals/acrylamide.html |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]]}}</ref>

===Hazards===
Radiolabeled acrylamide is also a [[skin irritant]] and may be a [[tumor initiator]] in the skin, potentially increasing risk for skin cancer. Symptoms of acrylamide exposure include [[dermatitis]] in the exposed area, and [[peripheral neuropathy]].<ref name=NIOSHskin/>

Laboratory research has found that some [[phytochemical]]s may have the potential to be developed into drugs which could alleviate the toxicity of acrylamide.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Adewale OO, Brimson JM, Odunola OA, Gbadegesin MA, Owumi SE, Isidoro C, Tencomnao T |title=The Potential for Plant Derivatives against Acrylamide Neurotoxicity |journal=Phytother Res |volume= 29|issue= 7|pages= 978–85|year=2015 |pmid=25886076 |doi=10.1002/ptr.5353 |s2cid=5465814 |type=Review}}</ref>

===Mechanism of action===
[[file:Glycidamide.svg|thumb|left|[[Glycidamide]] is the dangerous metabolite produced from acrylamide, which in turn is produced by heating certain proteins.]]
Acrylamide is metabolized to the genotoxic derivative [[glycidamide]]. On the other hand, acrylamide and glycidamide can be detoxified via conjugation with [[glutathione]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4104|title=Scientific Opinion on acrylamide in food|journal=EFSA Journal|year=2015|volume=13|issue=6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/jf030204+|year=2003|volume=51|issue=16|last1=Friedman|first1=Mendel|title=Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Safety of Acrylamide. A Review|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|pages=4504–4526|pmid=14705871}}</ref>