Editing Acadia (section)

==History==
===17th century===
{{Main|Military history of the Miꞌkmaq people|Military history of the Acadians}}
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2017}}
The history of Acadia was significantly influenced by the great power conflict between France and England, later Great Britain, that occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=Reid1998/> Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Mi'kmaq had been living in Acadia for at least two to three thousand years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parks Canada Agency |first=Government of Canada |date=2023-06-29 |title=Indigenous culture |url=https://parks.canada.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/fortanne/culture/autochtone-indigenous |access-date=2023-12-10 |website=parks.canada.ca}}</ref> Early European settlers were French subjects primarily from the [[Poitou-Charentes]] and [[Aquitaine]] regions of southwestern France, now known as [[Nouvelle-Aquitaine]]. The first French settlement was established by [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts|Pierre Dugua de Mons]], [[List of Acadian governors|Governor of Acadia]], under the authority of the French King, [[Henry IV of France|Henri IV]], on [[Saint Croix Island, New Brunswick|Saint Croix Island]] in 1604. The following year, the settlement was moved across the [[Bay of Fundy]] to [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]] after a difficult winter on the island and deaths from [[scurvy]]. There, they constructed a new [[Port-Royal National Historic Site|habitation]]. In 1607, the colony received bad news as Henri IV revoked Sieur de Mons' royal fur monopoly, citing that the income was insufficient to justify supplying the colony further. Thus recalled, the last of the French left Port Royal in August 1607. Their allies, the Mi'kmaq, agreed to act as custodians of the settlement. When the former lieutenant governor, [[Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just]], returned in 1610, he found the [[Port-Royal National Historic Site|Port Royal habitation]] just as it was left.{{sfn|Faragher|2005|pp=17–19}}

During the first 80 years of the French presence in Acadia, there were numerous significant battles as the English, Scottish, and [[Jurriaen Aernoutsz|Dutch]] contested the French for possession of the colony. These battles happened at Port Royal, [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]],{{efn|Until 1784, New Brunswick was part of Nova Scotia.}} Cap de Sable (present-day [[Port La Tour, Nova Scotia]]), [[Jemseg, New Brunswick|Jemseg]], [[Castine, Maine|Castine]], and [[Baleine, Nova Scotia|Baleine]].

From the 1680s onward, there were six colonial wars that took place in the region (see the [[French and Indian Wars]] as well as [[Father Rale's War]] and [[Father Le Loutre's War]]). These wars were fought between [[New England]] and [[New France]], and their respective native allies. After the British [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|siege of Port Royal]] in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia was under the control of British colonial government, but both present-day [[New Brunswick]] and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France, until the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] of 1763 confirmed British control over the region.

The wars were fought on two fronts: the southern border of Acadia, which New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine{{sfn|Williamson|1832|pages=27, 266, 293}} and in present-day peninsular Nova Scotia. The latter involved preventing the British from taking the capital of Acadia, Port Royal (See [[Queen Anne's War]]), establishing themselves at [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] (See [[Father Rale's War]]) and founding Halifax (see [[Father Le Loutre's War]]).

====Acadian Civil War====
{{Main|Acadian Civil War}}
[[File:Madame La Tour Defending Fort St.Jean.jpg|thumb|Siege of [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] (1645) – d'Aulnay defeats La Tour in Acadia]]
From 1640 to 1645, Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a civil war.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} The war was between Port Royal, where the Governor of Acadia [[Charles de Menou d'Aulnay]] de Charnisay was stationed, and present-day [[Saint John, New Brunswick]], where Governor of Acadia [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]] was stationed.<ref>{{cite book|last=MacDonald|first=M.A.|title=Fortune & La Tour: the Civil War in Acadia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8gYVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP1|year=1983|publisher=Methuen|isbn=9780458958009}}</ref> There were four major battles in the war, and d'Aulnay ultimately prevailed over La Tour.

====King Philip's War====
During [[King Philip's War]] (1675–78), the governor was absent from Acadia (having first been imprisoned in Boston during the [[New Holland (Acadia)|Dutch occupation of Acadia]]) and [[Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin]] was established at the capital of Acadia, Pentagouêt. From there he worked with the Abenaki of Acadia to raid British settlements migrating over the border of Acadia. British retaliation included attacking deep into Acadia in the [[Battle off Port La Tour (1677)]].

====Wabanaki Confederacy====
In response to [[King Philip's War]] in [[New England]], the native peoples in Acadia joined the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] to form a political and military alliance with New France.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Harald E. L. |last=Prins |title=Storm Clouds Over Wabanaki: Confederacy Diplomacy until Dummer's Treaty (1727) |conference=The Atlantic Policy Congress of First Nations Chiefs |location=Amherst, Nova Scotia |date=March 1999 |url=http://www.wabanaki.com/Harald_Prins.htm |access-date=January 22, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719142815/http://www.wabanaki.com/Harald_Prins.htm |archive-date=July 19, 2011 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The Confederacy remained significant military allies to New France through six wars. Until the [[French and Indian War]] the Wabanaki Confederacy remained the dominant military force in the region.

====Catholic missions====
There were tensions on the border between New England and Acadia, which New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine.{{sfn|Williamson|1832|pages=27, 266, 293}}<ref name="Griffiths2005"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=William Edgar|title=The Road to Canada: The Grand Communications Route from Saint John to Quebec|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Je0MAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA21|year=2005|publisher=Goose Lane Editions|isbn=978-0-86492-426-1|page=21}}</ref> English settlers from Massachusetts (whose charter included the Maine area) had expanded their settlements into Acadia. To secure New France's claim to Acadia, it established Catholic missions (churches) among the four largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River ([[Norridgewock]]); one further north on the [[Penobscot River]] ([[Penobscot Indian Island Reservation|Penobscot]]); one on the [[Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)|Saint John River]] ([[Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic|Medoctec]]);{{sfn|Grenier|2008|pages=51, 54}}<ref>{{CRHP|14831|Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic National Historic Site of Canada}}</ref><ref>{{DFHD|213|Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic National Historic Site of Canada}}</ref> and one at [[Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia|Shubenacadie]] (Saint Anne's Mission).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.northeastarch.com/sainte_anne.html |title=Mission Sainte-Anne: Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia |publisher=Northeast Archaeological Research |archive-date=October 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011031532/http://www.northeastarch.com/sainte_anne.html}}</ref>

====King William's War====
During [[King William's War]] (1688–97), some Acadians, the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] and the French Priests participated in defending Acadia at its border with New England, which New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine.{{sfn|Williamson|1832|pages=27, 266, 293}} Toward this end, the members of the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]], on the Saint John River and in other places, joined the New France expedition against present-day [[Bristol, Maine]] (the [[siege of Pemaquid (1689)]]), [[Raid on Salmon Falls|Salmon Falls]] and present-day [[Battle of Fort Loyal|Portland, Maine]].

In response, the New Englanders retaliated by attacking [[Battle of Port Royal (1690)|Port Royal]] and present-day [[Battle at Chedabucto (Guysborough)|Guysborough]]. In 1694, the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] participated in the [[Raid on Oyster River]] at present-day [[Durham, New Hampshire]]. Two years later, New France, led by [[Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville]], returned and fought a [[Action of 14 July 1696|naval battle in the Bay of Fundy]] before moving on to raid [[Siege of Pemaquid (1696)|Bristol, Maine]], again.

In retaliation, the New Englanders, led by [[Benjamin Church (ranger)|Benjamin Church]], engaged in a [[Raid on Chignecto (1696)]] and the [[Siege of Fort Nashwaak (1696)|siege of the Capital of Acadia at Fort Nashwaak]].

At the end of the war England returned the territory to France in the [[Treaty of Ryswick]] and the borders of Acadia remained the same.

===18th century===
[[File:Carte de l Acadie, Isle Royale, et pais voisins.jpg|thumb|Acadia in 1757]]

====Queen Anne's War====
During [[Queen Anne's War]], some Acadians, the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] and the French priests participated again in defending Acadia at its border with New England. They made numerous raids on New England settlements along the border in the [[Northeast Coast Campaign (1703)|Northeast Coast Campaign]] and the famous [[Raid on Deerfield]]. In retaliation, Major Benjamin Church went on his fifth and final expedition to Acadia. He raided present-day Castine, Maine and continued with raids against [[Raid on Grand Pre|Grand Pre]], Pisiquid, and Chignecto. A few years later, defeated in the [[siege of Pemaquid (1696)]], Captain March made an unsuccessful [[Siege of Port Royal (1707)|siege on the Capital of Acadia]], Port Royal (1707). British forces were successful with the [[siege of Port Royal (1710)]], while the Wabanaki Confederacy were successful in the nearby [[Battle of Bloody Creek (1711)]] and continued raids along the Maine frontier.<ref>{{cite book |last=Drake |first=Samuel Adams |title=The Border Wars of New England |pages=264–266 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |date=1897 |url=https://archive.org/stream/borderwarsnew00drakrich#page/264/mode/2up}}</ref>

The 1710 conquest of the Acadian capital of Port Royal during the war was confirmed by the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] of 1713. The British conceded to the French "the island called [[Cape Breton]], as also all others, both in the mouth of the river of St. Lawrence, and in the gulph of the same name", and "all manner of liberty to fortify any place or places there." The French established a fortress at [[Louisbourg]], Cape Breton, to guard the sea approaches to Quebec.<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Peace and Friendship Treaty of Utrecht between France and Great Britain |date=1713 |at=Article XIII}}</ref>

On 23 June 1713, the French residents of Nova Scotia were given one year to declare allegiance to Britain or leave the region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Doughty |first=Arthur G. |author-link=Arthur G. Doughty |title=The Acadian exiles: a chronicle of the land of Evangeline |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/acadianexileschr00douguoft/page/28 |year=1916 |publisher=Brook and Company |pages=28–46 |chapter=The Oath of Allegiance}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Acadian HeartlandRecords of the Deportation and Le Grand Dérangement, 1714-1768 |work=Nova Scotia Archives |date=April 20, 2020 |pages=263–267 footnote |url=https://novascotia.ca/archives/deportation/archives.asp?Number=ONEII&Page=263&Language=English&Search=allegiance}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doucetfamily.org/heritage/Oath.htm|title=Our Acadian Heritage: Oath Of Allegiance Becomes Sticking Point With Acadians |website=Les Doucet du Monde}}</ref> In the meantime, the French signalled their preparedness for future hostilities by beginning the construction of [[Fortress Louisbourg]] on Île Royale, now Cape Breton Island. The British grew increasingly alarmed by the prospect of disloyalty in wartime of the Acadians now under their rule. French missionaries worked to maintain the loyalty of Acadians, and to maintain a hold on the mainland part of Acadia.

====Dummer's War====
[[File:1720 Chatelain Map of North America - Geographicus - Amerique-chatelain-1720.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|French map of 1720 North America. Acadie extends clearly into present-day New Brunswick.]]
During the escalation that preceded [[Dummer's War]] (1722–1725), some Acadians, the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] and the French priests persisted in defending Acadia, which had been conceded to the British in the Treaty of Utrecht, at its border against New England. The Miꞌkmaq refused to recognize the treaty handing over their land to the English and hostilities resumed. The Miꞌkmaq raided the new fort at [[Canso, Nova Scotia]] in 1720. The Confederacy made numerous raids on New England settlements along the border into New England. Towards the end of January 1722, Governor [[Samuel Shute]] chose to launch a punitive expedition against [[Sébastien Rale]], a Jesuit missionary, at [[Norridgewock]].<ref>{{cite DCB |title=Rale, Sébastien |first=Thomas |last=Charland |volume=2 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/rale_sebastien_2E.html}}</ref> This breach of the border of Acadia, which had at any rate been ceded to the British, drew all of the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy into the conflict.

Under potential siege by the Confederacy, in May 1722, Lieutenant Governor [[John Doucett]] took 22 Miꞌkmaq hostage at [[Annapolis Royal]] to prevent the capital from being attacked.{{sfn|Grenier|2008|p=56}} In July 1722, the [[Abenaki people|Abenaki]] and [[Miꞌkmaq people|Miꞌkmaq]] created a blockade of Annapolis Royal, with the intent of starving the capital.{{sfn|Murdoch|1865|p=399}} The natives captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners from present-day [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]] to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels from the [[Bay of Fundy]].

As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Shute officially declared war on 22 July 1722.{{sfn|Murdoch|1865|p=398}} The first battle of Father Rale's War happened in the Nova Scotia [[Acadian theatre|theatre]].{{efn|The Nova Scotia theatre of the Dummer War is named the "Miꞌkmaq-Maliseet War" by John Grenier {{harv|Grenier|2008}} }} In response to the blockade of Annapolis Royal, at the end of July 1722, New England launched a campaign to end the blockade and retrieve over 86 New England prisoners taken by the natives. One of these operations resulted in the [[Battle at Winnepang (Jeddore Harbour)|Battle at Jeddore]].{{sfn|Murdoch|1865|p=399}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Plank|first=Geoffrey|title=An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the Peoples of Acadia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWwtrvUzceIC&pg=PA78|year=2001|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-1869-8|page=78}}</ref> The next was a raid on Canso in 1723.{{sfn|Grenier|2008|p=62}}<ref>Benjamin Church, p. 289</ref> Then in July 1724 a group of sixty Miꞌkmaq and Wolastoqiyik raided Annapolis Royal.{{sfn|Faragher|2005|pp=164–165}}{{sfn|Dunn|2004|p=123}}

As a result of Father Rale's War, present-day central Maine fell again to the British with the defeat of Sébastien Rale at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the native population from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers.

====King George's War====
[[File:Samuel Scott - Action Between Nottingham And Mars 1746.jpg|thumb|[[Duc d'Anville Expedition]]: ''Action between {{HMS|Nottingham|1703|6}} and the Mars'']]
[[King George's War]] began when the war declarations from Europe reached the French [[Fortress Louisbourg|fortress at Louisbourg]] first, on May 3, 1744, and the forces there wasted little time in beginning hostilities. Concerned about their overland supply lines to [[Quebec City|Quebec]], they first [[Raid on Canso|raided the British fishing port of Canso]] on May 23, and then organized an attack on [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], then the capital of [[Nova Scotia]]. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their [[Miꞌkmaq people|Miꞌkmaq]] and [[Wolastoqiyik|Wolastoqey]] allies decided to [[Siege of Fort Anne|attack on their own]] in early July. Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging [[Fort Anne]]. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days. Then, in mid-August, a larger French force arrived before Fort Anne, but was also unable to mount an effective attack or siege against the garrison, which had received supplies and reinforcements from [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]]. In 1745, British colonial forces conducted the [[siege of Port Toulouse]] (St. Peter's) and then [[Siege of Louisbourg (1745)|captured Fortress Louisbourg]] after a siege of six weeks. France launched [[Duc d'Anville Expedition|a major expedition]] to recover Acadia in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the [[Jean-Baptiste Louis Frédéric de La Rochefoucauld de Roye|Duc d'Anville]], it returned to France in tatters without reaching its objective. French officer [[Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay]] also arrived from Quebec and conducted the [[Battle at Port-la-Joye]] on Île Saint-Jean and the [[Battle of Grand Pré]].

====Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755)====
{{Main|Father Le Loutre's War}}
[[File:Acadians 2, inset of painting by Samuel Scott of Annapolis Royal, 1751.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Acadians at Annapolis Royal, by [[Samuel Scott (painter)|Samuel Scott]], 1751; earliest known image of Acadians]]
Despite the British capture of the Acadian capital in the [[siege of Port Royal (1710)]], Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Miꞌkmaq. To prevent the establishment of Protestant settlements in the region, Miꞌkmaq raided the early British settlements of present-day [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]] (1715) and [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] (1720). A generation later, [[Father Le Loutre's War]] began when [[Edward Cornwallis]] arrived to establish [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] with 13 transports on 21 June 1749.{{efn|The framework "Father Le Loutre's War" is developed by John Grenier in {{harvp|Grenier|2008}} ''The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760''. and {{harvp|Grenier|2005}} ''The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814''. He outlines his rationale for naming these conflicts as Father Le Loutre's War}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Akins |first=Thomas B. |title=History of Halifax City |url=https://archive.org/details/historyhalifaxc00akingoog |year=1895 |publisher=Nova Scotia Historical Society |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyhalifaxc00akingoog/page/n15 7]}}</ref> The British quickly began to build other settlements. To guard against Miꞌkmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, they erected fortifications in Halifax [[Citadel Hill (Fort George)|(Citadel Hill)]] (1749), Dartmouth (1750), Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1751), [[Lunenburg, Nova Scotia|Lunenburg]] (1753) and [[Lawrencetown, Halifax County, Nova Scotia|Lawrencetown]] (1754).{{sfn|Grenier|2005}} There were numerous Miꞌkmaq and Acadian raids on these villages such as the [[Raid on Dartmouth (1751)]].

Within 18 months of establishing Halifax, the British also took firm control of peninsular Nova Scotia by building fortifications in all the major Acadian communities: present-day Windsor ([[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)|Fort Edward]], 1750); Grand Pre ([[Fort Vieux Logis]], 1749) and Chignecto ([[Fort Lawrence]], 1750). (A British fort already existed at the other major Acadian centre of [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]]. Cobequid remained without a fort.){{sfn|Grenier|2005}} Numerous Miꞌkmaq and Acadian raids took place against these fortifications, such as the [[siege of Grand Pre]] (1749).

====Deportation of the Acadians====
{{Main|Expulsion of the Acadians}}
[[File:A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grymross, by Thomas Davies, 1758.JPG|thumb|[[St. John River Campaign]]: ''A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grimross'' (present-day [[Arcadia, New Brunswick]]) by [[Thomas Davies (British Army officer)|Thomas Davies]] in 1758. This is the only contemporaneous image of the [[Expulsion of the Acadians]].]]
[[File:Destruction du vaisseau le Prudent et capture du Bienfaisant a Louisbourg 1758.jpg|thumb|[[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)]]]]
In the years after the British conquest, the Acadians refused to swear unconditional oaths of allegiance to the British crown. During this time period some Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to Fortress Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour.{{sfn|Grenier|2008}} During the [[French and Indian War]], the British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting them.<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen E. |last=Patterson |chapter=Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749–61: A Study in Political Interaction |editor1-last=Buckner |editor1-first=Phillip A. |editor2-last=Campbell |editor2-first=Gail G. |editor3-last=Frank |editor3-first=David |title=The Acadiensis Reader: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation |publisher=Acadiensis Press |edition=third |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/atlanticcanadabe0000unse/page/105 105–106] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnxIPgAACAAJ&pg=PA105 |isbn=978-0-9191-0744-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/atlanticcanadabe0000unse/page/105 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen E. |last=Patterson |chapter=Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples |editor1-last=Buckner |editor1-first=Phillip |editor2-last=Reid |editor2-first=John G. |title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2spDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |date=1994 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4875-1676-5 |page=144}}</ref>

This process began in 1755, after the British [[Battle of Fort Beauséjour|captured Fort Beauséjour]] and began the [[expulsion of the Acadians]] with the [[Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)|Bay of Fundy Campaign]]. Between six and seven thousand Acadians were expelled from Nova Scotia<ref>{{cite book |last=Mouhot |first=Jean-Francois |date=2009 |title=Les Réfugiés Acadiens en France (1758–1785): L'Impossible réintégration? |trans-title=The Acadian Refugees in France, 1758-1785: The Impossible Reintegration? |language=fr |publisher=Editions du Septentrion |isbn=978-2-8944-8513-2}}</ref> to the [[Thirteen Colonies|lower British American colonies]].{{sfn|Faragher|2005}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Lacoursière |first=Jacques |date=1995 |title=Histoire populaire du Québec, Tome 1, des origines à 1791 |trans-title=Folk History of Quebec, Volume 1: From origins to 1791 |language=fr |publisher=Éditions du Septentrion |page=270 |isbn=978-2-8944-8739-6}}</ref> Some Acadians eluded capture by fleeing deep into the wilderness or into [[Canada, New France|French-controlled Canada]]. The Quebec town of L'Acadie (now a sector of [[Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu]]) was founded by expelled Acadians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ville.saint-jean-sur-richelieu.qc.ca/cgi-bin/index.cgi?page=y1_2 |title=Ville de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005041258/http://www.ville.saint-jean-sur-richelieu.qc.ca/cgi-bin/index.cgi?page=y1_2 |archive-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref> After the [[siege of Louisbourg (1758)]], a second wave of the expulsion began with the [[St. John River Campaign]], [[Petitcodiac River Campaign]], [[Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758)|Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign]] and the [[Île Saint-Jean Campaign]].

The Acadians and the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] created a significant resistance to the British throughout the war. They repeatedly raided Canso, Lunenburg, Halifax, Chignecto and into New England.{{sfn|Grenier|2008}}

Any pretense that France might maintain or regain control over the remnants of Acadia came to an end with the fall of Montreal in 1760 and the 1763 [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]], which permanently ceded almost all of eastern New France to Britain. In 1763, Britain would designate lands west of the Appalachians as the "Indian Reserve", but did not respect Miꞌkmaq title to the Atlantic region, claiming title was obtained from the French. The Miꞌkmaq remain in Acadia to this day. After 1764, many exiled Acadians finally settled in [[Spanish Louisiana|Louisiana]], which had been transferred by France to Spain as part of the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] which formally ended conflict between France and Great Britain over control of North America (the [[Seven Years' War]], known as the [[French and Indian War]] in the United States),.<ref name="Marston">{{cite book |title=The French–Indian War 1754–1760 |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchindianwar00mars_617 |url-access=limited |last=Marston |first=Daniel |pages=[https://archive.org/details/frenchindianwar00mars_617/page/n81 84] |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-415-96838-0}}</ref> The [[demonym]] ''Acadian'' developed into ''[[Cajun]],'' which was first used as a pejorative term until its later mainstream acceptance.

Britain eventually moderated its policies and allowed Acadians to return to Nova Scotia. However, most of the fertile former Acadian lands were now occupied by British colonists. The returning Acadians settled instead in more outlying areas of the original Acadia, such as Cape Breton and the areas which are now New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.<ref>Landry and Lang, p.128</ref>

===19th century===
====Acadian Renaissance====
{{Main|Acadian Renaissance}}
[[File:Flag of Acadia.svg|upright|thumb|Modern flag of Acadia adopted 1884]]
Among the Acadian descendants in the Canadian Maritime provinces, there was a revival of cultural awareness which is recognized as an [[Acadian Renaissance]],<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web |title=A Productive Dykeland and the Birth of a Symbol 1806–1907: The Acadian Renaissance |url=http://www.landscapeofgrandpre.ca/a-productive-dykeland-and-the-birth-of-a-symbol-1806ndash1907.html |website=Landscape of Grand Pré - A World Heritage Site. Section: The Acadian Renaissance |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref> with a struggle for recognition of Acadians as a distinct group starting in the mid-nineteenth century.<ref>Landry and Lang, p.157</ref> Some Acadian deputies were elected to legislative assemblies, starting in 1836 with [[Simon d'Entremont]] in Nova Scotia.<ref>Landry and Lang, p.133</ref> Several other provincial and federal members followed in New Brunswick and in Prince Edward Island.<ref>Landry and Lang, p.133 and p.159-162</ref>

This period saw the founding of Acadian higher educational institutions: the Saint Thomas Seminary from 1854 to 1862 and then [[University of St. Joseph's College|Saint Joseph's College]] from 1864, both in [[Memramcook, New Brunswick]].<ref>Landry and Lang, pp.167-172</ref> This was followed by the founding of Acadian newspapers: the weekly {{lang|fr|[[Le Moniteur Acadien]]}} in 1867<ref>Landry and Lang, pp.167</ref><ref name=UNESCO/> and the daily {{lang|fr|L'Évangéline}} in 1887 ([[:fr:L'Évangéline|fr]]), named after the [[Evangeline|epic poem]] by [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow|Longfellow]].

In New Brunswick the 1870s saw a struggle against the [[Common Schools Act of 1871]], which imposed a non-denominational school system and forbade religious instruction during school hours.<ref>Wilbur, p.13</ref> This led to widespread Acadian protests and school-tax boycotts, culminating in the [[Common Schools Act of 1871#1875 Caraquet riots|1875 riots in the town of Caraquet]].<ref>Wilbur, chaps. 2-3</ref> Finally in 1875 a [[Common Schools Act of 1871#Amendment|compromise]] was reached allowing for some Catholic religious teaching in the schools.<ref>Wilbur, p.38</ref>

In the 1880s there began a series of Acadian national conventions.<ref name=CyberAc>{{cite web |title=Historique des conventions nationales |url=http://www.cyberacadie.com/cyberacadie.com/index621c.html?/symboles/Historique-des-conventions-nationales.html |website=l'Histoire acadienne, au bout des doigts |publisher=CyberAcadie |access-date=14 August 2020 |language=fr |quote=Voici une brève description des Conventions nationales acadiennes (1881-1972)}}</ref> The first in 1881 adopted [[Assumption Day]] (Aug.15) as the [[National Acadian Day|Acadian national holiday]]. The convention favored the argument of the priest Marcel-François Richard ([[:fr:Marcel-François Richard|fr]]) that Acadians are a distinct people which should have a national holiday distinct from that of Quebec ([[Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day]]).<ref name=DCB>{{cite web |last1=LeBlanc |first1=Phyllis E. |title=RICHARD, MARCEL-FRANÇOIS |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/richard_marcel_francois_14E.html |website=Dictionary of Canadian Biography |publisher=University of Toronto/Université Laval |access-date=22 August 2020 |date=2003}}</ref> The second convention in 1884 adopted other national symbols including the [[flag of Acadia]] designed by Marcel-François Richard, and the anthem [[Ave maris stella#Acadian anthem|Ave maris stella]].<ref name=UNESCO/><ref>Landry and Lang, pp.190-192</ref><ref name=DCB/> The third convention in 1890 created the Société nationale L'Assomption to promote the interests of the Acadian people in the Maritimes.<ref>Landry and Lang p.192-3</ref> Other Acadian national conventions continued until the fifteenth in 1972.<ref name=CyberAc/>

In 1885, the author, historian and linguist [[Pascal Poirier]] became the first Acadian member of the [[Senate of Canada]].<ref>Landry and Lang, pp.196</ref>

===20th century and beyond===
By the early twentieth century, some Acadians were chosen for leadership positions in New Brunswick. In 1912, Monseigneur Édouard LeBlanc of Nova Scotia was named bishop of [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], after a campaign lasting many years to convince the Vatican to appoint an Acadian bishop.<ref>Landry and Lang, p.208</ref><ref>Wilbur, p.78</ref> In 1917, the premier of Prince Edward Island resigned to accept a judicial position, and his Conservative Party chose [[Aubin-Edmond Arsenault]] as successor until the next election in 1919. Arsenault thus became the first Acadian provincial premier of any province in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aubin-Edmond Arsenault Served as Premier: 1917 to 1919 |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/peigov/49582911898/in/album-72157713241253011/ |website=Historical Premiers Gallery |date=February 25, 2020 |publisher=Government of Prince Edward Island |access-date=30 June 2020}}</ref><ref>Landry and Lang, p.232</ref> In 1923, [[Peter Veniot]] became the first Acadian premier of New Brunswick when he was chosen by the Liberal Party to complete the term of the retiring premier until 1925.<ref>Wilbur p.123</ref>

The expansion of Acadian influence in the Catholic church continued in 1936 with the creation of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Moncton|Archdiocese of Moncton]]<ref>Wilbur, p.146</ref> whose first archbishop was [[Louis-Joseph-Arthur Melanson]], and whose [[Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral, Moncton|Cathédrale Notre-Dame de l’Assomption]] was completed in 1940. The new archdiocese was expanded to include new predominantly Acadian dioceses in [[Bathurst, New Brunswick]] (1938), in [[Edmundston]] (1944) and in [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia]] (1953).<ref>Landry and Lang, p.249-50</ref>

====Government of Louis Robichaud====
In 1960, [[Louis Robichaud]] became the first Acadian to be elected premier of a Canadian province. He was elected premier of New Brunswick in 1960 and served three terms until 1970.<ref>Landry and Lang, p.269-271</ref><ref>Wilbur, p.200</ref>

The Robichaud government created the [[Université de Moncton]] in 1963 as a unilingual French-language university,<ref>Landry and Lang, p.284</ref> corresponding to the much older unilingual English-language [[University of New Brunswick]]. In 1964, two different deputy ministers of education were named to direct English-language and French-language school systems respectively.<ref>Landry and Lang p.279</ref> In the next few years, the Université de Moncton absorbed the former Saint-Joseph's College,<ref name=UM>{{cite web |title=Historique - Notre université |url=https://www.umoncton.ca/notreumoncton/historique |website=Université de Moncton |access-date=29 July 2020 |language=fr}}</ref> as well as the École Normale (teacher's college) which trained French-speaking teachers for the Acadian schools.<ref>Wilbur, p.212-13</ref> In 1977, two French-speaking colleges in Northern New Brunswick were transformed into the [[Edmundston]] and [[Shippagan]] campuses of the Université de Moncton.<ref name=UM/>

The [[New Brunswick Equal Opportunity program]] of 1967 introduced reforms of municipal structures, of health care, of education, and of the administration of justice. In general, these changes tended to reduce economic inequality between regions of the province, and therefore tended to favour the disadvantaged Acadian regions.<ref>Landry and Lang p.271</ref>

The [[New Brunswick Official Languages Act (1969)]] declared New Brunswick officially bilingual with English and French having equal status as official languages. Residents have the right to receive provincial government services in the official language of their choice.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Official Languages |url=https://officiallanguages.nb.ca/content/history-of-official-languages/ |website=Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages for New Brunswick (OCOLNB) |access-date=3 August 2020}}</ref>

====After 1970====
The New Brunswick government of [[Richard Hatfield]] (1970–87) cooperated with the [[Government of Canada]] in including the right to linguistic equality in the province as a part of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] of 1982, so that it cannot be rescinded by any future provincial government.<ref>Landry and Lang p.271-272</ref>

Nova Scotia adopted Bill 65 in 1981 to give Acadian schools legal status, and also created a study program including Acadian history and culture. The Acadian schools were placed under separate management in 1996.<ref>Landry and Lang p.280-281</ref>

Prince Edward Island provided French-language schools in 1980 in areas with a sufficient number of Acadian students, followed by a French-language school commission for the province in 1990. In 2000 a decision of the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] obliged the provincial government to build French schools at least in [[Charlottetown]] and [[Summerside, Prince Edward Island|Summerside]], the two largest communities.<ref>Landry and Lang p.283</ref>

The new French-language daily newspaper [[L'Acadie Nouvelle]] published in [[Caraquet]] appeared in 1984, replacing L’Évangeline which ceased publication in 1982.<ref>Landry and Lang p.289</ref>

The series of Acadian National Conventions from 1881 to 1972 was followed by an Acadian National Orientation Convention in 1979 at [[Edmundston]].<ref>{{cite web|title=La CONA de 1979: le flirt de l'Acadie du Nouveau-Brunswick avec l'indépendance|url=https://www.acadienouvelle.com/actualites/2020/01/02/la-cona-de-1979-le-flirt-de-lacadie-du-nouveau-brunswick-avec-lindependance/|author=Marc Poirier|website=Acadie Nouvelle|date=3 January 2020|access-date=16 August 2020}}</ref> Since 1994, there has been a new series of [[Acadian World Congress]]es at five-year intervals starting with 1994 in southeastern New Brunswick and 1999 in Louisiana. The most recent was centered in [[Summerside, Prince Edward Island]] in 2019.