Editing 1929 (section)

===Europe===

====Western====
In 1929, the [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Party in Italy]] tightened its control. National education policy took a major step towards being completely taken over by the agenda of indoctrination.<ref name=" Pauley_2">{{cite book|title=Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century|last=Pauley|first=Bruce F.|year=2003|publisher=Harlan Davidson|location=Wheeling|page=117}}</ref> In that year, the Fascist government took control of the authorization of all textbooks, all secondary school teachers were required to take an oath of loyalty to Fascism, and children began to be taught that they owed the same loyalty to Fascism as they did to God.<ref name=" Pauley_2"/>

On February 11, the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and the [[Holy See]] signed the [[Lateran Treaty]], making [[Vatican City]] a sovereign state.<ref>{{cite book|title=Italy from Revolution to Republic|last=Scala|first=DI|author2=M. Spencer|author3=D.I. Scala|year=2004|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder|isbn=0-8133-4176-0|pages=262–263}}</ref> On [[July 25]], [[Pope Pius XI]] emerged from the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican]] and entered St. Peter's Square in a huge procession witnessed by about 250,000 persons, thus ending nearly 60 years of [[Prisoner in the Vatican|papal self-imprisonment within the Vatican]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Prisoner of the Vatican|last=Kertzer|first=David|year=2004|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=0-618-22442-4|pages=292–293}}</ref> Italy used the diplomatic prestige associated with this successful agreement to adopt a more aggressive foreign policy.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929-32|last=Pollard|first=John|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-02366-1|pages=74–76}}</ref> Germany experienced a major turning point in this year due to the economic crash. The country had experienced prosperity under the government of the [[Weimar Republic]] until foreign investors withdrew their German interests. This began the crumbling of the Republican government in favor of Nazism.<ref>{{cite book|title=Weimar and Nazi Germany|last=Lee|first=Stephen|year=1996|publisher=Heinemann|location=London|isbn=0-435-30920-X|pages=38–39}}</ref> In 1929, the number of unemployed reached three million.<ref>Gilbert, Martin. ''A History of the Twentieth Century.'' New York: Avon books, 1998. {{ISBN|0-380-71393-4}}</ref> On [[July 27]], the [[Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War (1929)|Geneva Convention]], held in Switzerland, addressed the treatment of prisoners of war in response to problems encountered during World War I.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/INTRO/305?OpenDocument|title=Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries - Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War, 1929|website=www.icrc.org}}</ref>

On [[May 31]], the [[1929 United Kingdom general election|British general election]] returned a hung parliament yet again, with the Liberals in position to determine who would have power. These elections were known as the "Flapper" elections due to the fact that it was the first British election in which women under 30 could vote.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, Modernity, and the Popular Press in Inter-War Britain|last=Bingham|first=Adrian|year=2004|publisher=Clarendon|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-927247-6|page=125}}</ref> A week after the vote, on [[June 7]] the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] conceded power rather than ally with the Liberals. [[Ramsay MacDonald]] founded a new [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government the next day.<ref>{{cite book|title=Twentieth-Century Britain|first=William|last=Rubinstein|year=2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=0-333-77224-5|pages=165–169}}</ref>

1929 is regarded as a turning point by [[French historians]], who point out that it was last year in which prosperity was felt before the effects of the Great Depression. The [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] had been in power since before World War I. On July 24, French prime minister [[Raymond Poincaré]] resigned for medical reasons; he was succeeded by [[Aristide Briand]]. Briand adopted a foreign policy of both peace and defensive fortification. The [[Kellogg–Briand Pact]], renouncing [[war]] as an instrument of [[foreign policy]], went into effect in this year (it was first signed in Paris in [[1928]] by most leading world powers).<ref>{{cite book|title=Triumph and Downfall|last=Louria|first=Margot|year=2001|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport|isbn=0-313-31272-9|pages=137–138}}</ref> The French began work on the [[Maginot Line]] in this year, as a defense against a possible German attack, and on September 5 Briand presented a plan for the ''United States of Europe''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914-1938|last=Bernard|first=Philippe|year=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-35854-X|page=173}}</ref> On October 22, Briand was replaced as prime minister by [[André Tardieu]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Lights That Failed |last=Steiner|first=Zara|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-822114-2|page=828}}</ref> [[Miguel Primo de Rivera|Primo de Rivera]]'s dictatorship in Spain experienced growing dissatisfaction among students and academics, as well as businessmen who blamed the government for recent economic woes. Many called for a fascist regime, like that in Italy.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977|url=https://archive.org/details/fascisminspain1900payn|url-access=registration|last=Payne|first=Stanley|year=1999|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison|isbn=0-299-16564-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fascisminspain1900payn/page/36 36–37]}}</ref>

==== Eastern ====
In May, [[Joseph Stalin]] consolidated his power in the [[Soviet Union]] by sending [[Leon Trotsky]] into exile. The only country that would grant Trotsky asylum was Turkey, in return for his help during Turkey's civil war. He and his family left the USSR aboard ship on February 12.<ref>Brackman, Roman. ''The Secret File of Joseph Stalin''. London: Frank Cass, 2001. pp. 202–203 {{ISBN|0-7146-5050-1}}</ref> Stalin turned on his former political ally, [[Nikolai Bukharin]], who was the last real threat to his power. By the end of the year Bukharin had been defeated.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Martyred for Communism |url=https://www.hoover.org/research/martyred-communism |access-date=2025-04-06 |website=Hoover Institution |language=en}}</ref> Once Stalin was in power, he turned his former support for Lenin's [[New Economic Policy]] into opposition.<ref>Alexander, Robert. ''International Trotskyism, 1929-1985.'' Durham: Duke University Press, 1991. p. 3 {{ISBN|0-8223-1066-X}}</ref> In November, Stalin declared that it "The Year of the [[Great Break (USSR)|Great Breakthrough]]" and stated that the country would focus on industrial programs as well as on collectivizing the grain supply. He hoped to surpass the West not only in agriculture, but in industry.<ref>[[Helen Rappaport|Rappaport, Helen]]. ''Joseph Stalin: a Biographical Companion''. City: ABC-Clio Inc., 1999. p. 119 {{ISBN|1-57607-084-0}}</ref> Millions of Soviet farmers were removed from their private farms, their property was collected, and they were moved to state-owned farms. Stalin emphasized in 1929 a campaign demonizing [[kulak]]s as a plague on society. Kulak property was taken and they were deported by cattle train to areas of frozen tundra.<ref>Gilbert, 761–2</ref>

The timber market in Finland began to decline in 1929 due to the Great Depression, as well as the Soviet Union's entrance into the market. Financial and political problems culminated in the birth of the fascist [[Lapua Movement]] on [[November 23]] in a demonstration in [[Lapua]]. The movement's stated aim was Finnish democracy and anti-communism.<ref>Singleton, Frederick and Anthony Upton. ''A Short History of Finland''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. p. 117; {{ISBN|0-521-64701-0}}</ref> The Finnish legislature received heavy pressure to remove basic rights from Communist groups.<ref>Capoccia, Giovanni. Defending Democracy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. p. 153–154 {{ISBN|0-8018-8038-6}}</ref> Politics in Lithuania was heated, as President Voldemaras was unpopular in some quarters, and survived an assassination attempt in [[Kaunas]].<ref name="Vaicikonis">[http://www.lituanus.org/1984_3/84_3_06.htm Kristina Vaičikonis. ''Augustinas Voldemaras''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423015346/http://www.lituanus.org/1984_3/84_3_06.htm|date=April 23, 2017}}. Lituanus, Vol. 30, No. 3, Fall 1984, ed. [[Antanas Klimas]]; {{ISSN|0024-5089}}</ref> Later, while attending a meeting of the [[League of Nations]], he was ousted in a coup by President [[Antanas Smetona|Smetona]], who made himself dictator. Upon Voldemaras' removal from office, [[Iron Wolf (organization)|Geležinis Vilkas]] went underground and received aid and encouragement in its activities from Germany.<ref name=" Vaicikonis"/> The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was renamed the "Kingdom of Yugoslavia" as [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia|King Alexander]] sought to unite the South Slavs under his rule.<ref>Lukic, Reneo and Allen Lynch. Europe from the Balkans to the Urals. Solna: SIPRI, 1996. p. 68 {{ISBN|0-19-829200-7}}</ref> The state's new Monarchy replaced the old parliament, which had been dominated by Serbs.<ref>Payne, Stanley. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. New York: Routledge, 1996. pp. 143–144 {{ISBN|1-85728-595-6}}</ref>