Editing Ötzi (section)

==Scientific analyses==
The corpse has been extensively examined, measured, [[X-ray]]ed, and dated. Tissues and intestinal contents have been examined microscopically, as have the items found with the body. In August 2004, frozen bodies of three [[Austro-Hungarian]] soldiers killed during the [[Battle of San Matteo]] (1918) were found on the mountain [[Punta San Matteo]] in [[Trentino]]. One body was sent to a museum in the hope that research on how the environment had affected its preservation would help unravel Ötzi's past.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2004-08-23 |title=WWI bodies are found on glacier |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3592268.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630025333/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3592268.stm |archive-date=2006-06-30 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

===Body===
[[File:OetzitheIceman-glacier-199109a.jpg|thumb|alt=Ötzi is half uncovered, facing down in a pool of water with iced banks.|Ötzi, while still frozen in the glacier, photographed by Helmut Simon upon the discovery of the body in September 1991]]
<!--  Commented out: [[File:OetzitheIceman-glacier-199109b.jpg|thumb|250px|Another early photograph of the body before its removal from the ice|alt=Another picture of the Iceman from other side, now exposed to just below the waist with the arms partially exposed]] -->

By the most recent estimates, at the time of his death, Ötzi was {{cvt|160|cm|ftin}} tall, weighed about {{cvt|50|kg}}, and was about 45 years of age.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=2000-09-26 |title=Iceman is defrosted for gene tests: New techniques may link Copper Age shepherd to present-day relatives |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,373487,00.html |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 2012 |title=Mummy Melodrama: Top 9 Secrets About Otzi the Iceman |url=https://www.livescience.com/24666-otzi-iceman-mummy-life-death.html |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=[[Live Science]] |publisher=[[Future plc]]}}</ref> When his body was found, it weighed {{cvt|13.750|kg|lboz}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=transcript |date=17 February 2016 |title=Iceman Reborn |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/iceman-reborn.html |access-date=2018-09-13 |website=PBS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Egarter-Vigl |first=Eduard |title=The Chalcolithic Mummy, Volume 3, In Search of Immortality |publisher=Folio Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-85256-337-4 |editor-last=Marco Samadelli |page=54 |chapter=The Preservation of the Iceman Mummy}}</ref> Because the body was covered in ice shortly after his death, it had only partially deteriorated. Initial reports claimed that his [[Human penis|penis]] and most of his [[scrotum]] were missing, but this was later shown to be unfounded.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hays |first=Jeffrey |title=Otzi, The Iceman – Facts and Details |url=http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub362/item1496.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501201515/http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub362/item1496.html |archive-date=2017-05-01 |access-date=2017-11-02 |website=factsanddetails.com}}</ref> Analysis of pollen, dust grains and the [[isotope|isotopic]] composition of his [[tooth enamel]] indicates that he spent his childhood near the present South Tyrol village of [[Feldthurns]], north of Bolzano, but later went to live in valleys about {{convert|50|km}} farther north.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Wolfgang |title=Origin and Migration of the Alpine Iceman |date=2003-10-31 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=302 |issue=5646 |pages=862–866  |bibcode=2003Sci...302..862M |doi=10.1126/science.1089837 |pmid=14593178 |s2cid=21923588 |name-list-style=vanc |display-authors=1 |last2=Fricke |first2=H |last3=Halliday |first3=AN |last4=McCulloch |first4=MT |last5=Wartho |first5=JA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Who was Ötzi the Iceman? |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/identity.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217203826/http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/identity.htm |archive-date=2007-12-17 |website=Mummy Tombs}}</ref>

In 2009, a [[X-ray computed tomography|CAT]] scan revealed that the stomach had shifted upward to where his lower lung area would normally be. Analysis of the contents revealed the partly digested remains of [[Alpine ibex|ibex]] meat, confirmed by [[DNA analysis]], suggesting he had had a meal less than two hours before his death. Wheat grains were also found.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Than |first=Ker |date=2011-06-23 |title=Iceman's Stomach Sampled – Filled With Goat Meat |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/06/110623-iceman-mummy-otzi-meal-goat-stomach-science/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626140019/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/06/110623-iceman-mummy-otzi-meal-goat-stomach-science |archive-date=2011-06-26 |access-date=2011-06-24 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]}}</ref> It is believed that he most likely had a few slices of a dried, fatty meat, which came from a [[wild goat]] in South Tyrol, Italy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iceman Oetzi's last meal was 'Stone Age bacon' |url=https://phys.org/news/2017-01-iceman-oetzi-meal-stone-age.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024811/https://phys.org/news/2017-01-iceman-oetzi-meal-stone-age.html |archive-date=2017-11-07 |access-date=2017-11-02}}</ref> Analysis of his intestinal contents showed two meals (the last one consumed about eight hours before his death), one of [[chamois]] meat, the other of [[red deer]] and herb bread; both were eaten with roots and fruits. The grain also eaten with both meals was a highly processed [[einkorn]] wheat bran,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holden |first=T.G. |title=Bones and the Man: Studies in Honour of Don Brothwell |publisher=Oxbow Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84217-060-1 |editor-last=Dobney |editor-first=Keith |editor-link=Keith Dobney |location=Oxford |pages=35–40 |chapter=The Food Remains from the Colon of the Tyrolean Ice Man |editor-last2=O'Connor |editor-first2=Terry}}</ref> quite possibly eaten in the form of bread. In the proximity of the body, and thus possibly originating from the Iceman's provisions, chaff and grains of einkorn and [[barley]], and seeds of [[flax]] and [[poppy]] were discovered, as well as kernels of [[Prunus spinosa|sloes]] (small plum-like fruits of the blackthorn tree) and various seeds of berries growing in the wild.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=A.G. Heiss & K. Oeggl |date=2008-02-19 |title=The plant macro-remains from the Iceman site (Tisenjoch, Italian-Austrian border, eastern Alps): new results on the glacier mummy's environment |url=http://www.erbsenzaehler.at/download/papers/Heiss%20AG,%20Oeggl%20K%202008b.pdf |journal=Veget Hist Archaeobot |volume=18 |pages=23–35 |doi=10.1007/s00334-007-0140-8 |s2cid=14519658 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20170705115059/http://www.erbsenzaehler.at/download/papers/Heiss%20AG,%20Oeggl%20K%202008b.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2017}}</ref>

[[Hair analysis]] was used to examine his diet from several months before. Pollen in the first meal showed that it had been consumed in a mid-altitude [[conifer]] forest, and other pollens indicated the presence of wheat and [[legume]]s, which may have been domesticated crops. Pollen grains of [[Ostrya|hop-hornbeam]] were also discovered. The pollen was very well preserved, with the cells inside remaining intact, indicating that it had been fresh (estimated about two hours old) at the time of Ötzi's death, which places the event in the spring or early summer. Einkorn wheat is harvested in the late summer, and [[sloe]]s in the autumn; these must have been stored from the previous year.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bortenschlager |first=Sigmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=roEsBAAAQBAJ&q=Einkorn+wheat+is+harvested+in+the+late+summer,+and+sloes+in+the+autumn;+these+must+have+been+stored+from+the+previous+yea&pg=PA104 |title=The Iceman and his Natural Environment: Palaeobotanical Results |last2=Oeggl |first2=Klaus |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-7091-6758-8 |language=en}}</ref>

High levels of both [[copper]] particles and [[arsenic]] were found in his hair. This, along with his copper axe blade, which is 99.7% pure copper, has led scientists to speculate that he was involved in copper [[smelting]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> |date=2002-09-16 |title=Iceman's final meal |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2262615.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330095330/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2262615.stm |archive-date=2015-03-30 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

By examining the proportions of his [[tibia]], [[femur]] and [[Human pelvis|pelvis]], it was postulated that his lifestyle included long walks over hilly terrain. This degree of mobility is not characteristic of other Copper Age Europeans. This may indicate that he was a high-altitude shepherd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ruff |first=Christopher |last2=Holt |first2=BM |last3=Sládek |first3=V |last4=Berner |first4=M |last5=Murphy |first5=WA Jr |last6=Zur Nedden |first6=D |last7=Seidler |first7=H |last8=Recheis |first8=W |date=July 2006 |title=Body size, body proportions, and mobility in the Tyrolean "Iceman" |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=91–101 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.02.001 |pmid=16549104}}</ref>

Using modern [[3D scanning]] technology, a facial reconstruction has been created for the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy. It shows the Iceman looking old for his 45 years, with deep-set brown eyes, a beard, a furrowed face, and sunken cheeks. He is depicted as looking tired and ungroomed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lorenzi |first=Rossella |date=2011-02-25 |title=The Iceman Mummy: Finally Face to Face |url=http://news.discovery.com/history/otzi-face-reconstruction-110225.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110619001445/http://news.discovery.com/history/otzi-face-reconstruction-110225.html |archive-date=2011-06-19 |access-date=2011-06-24 |publisher=[[Discovery News]]}}</ref>

===Health===
Ötzi apparently had ''[[Trichuris trichiura]]'' (whipworm), an intestinal [[parasite]]. During CT scans, it was observed that three or four of his right ribs had been cracked when he had been lying face down after death, or where the ice had crushed his body. One of his fingernails (of the two found) shows three [[Beau's lines]], indicating he was sick three times in the six months before he died. The last incident, two months before he died, lasted about two weeks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dickson |first=James H. |last2=Oeggl |first2=Klaus |last3=Handly |first3=Linda L. |date=May 2003 |title=The Iceman Reconsidered |url=http://students.washington.edu/mastyles/eng198spring06/iceman_reconsidered.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=288 |issue=5 |pages=70–79 |bibcode=2003SciAm.288e..70D |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0503-70 |pmid=12701332 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012023432/http://students.washington.edu/mastyles/eng198spring06/iceman_reconsidered.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12}}</ref> It was also found that his [[epidermis]], the outer skin layer, was missing, a natural process from his mummification in ice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deem |first=James M. |date=2008-01-03 |title=Ötzi: Iceman of the Alps: His health |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/health.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113232822/http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/health.htm |archive-date=2006-11-13 |access-date=2008-01-06 |publisher=Mummy Tombs}}</ref> Ötzi's teeth showed considerable internal deterioration from cavities. These oral pathologies may have been brought about by his grain-heavy, high-carbohydrate diet.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-06-15 |title=Iceman Had Bad Teeth: Discovery News |url=http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-bad-teeth-110615.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925182225/http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-bad-teeth-110615.html |archive-date=2011-09-25 |access-date=2011-09-15 |publisher=News.discovery.com}}</ref> DNA analysis in February 2012 revealed that Ötzi was [[lactose intolerance|lactose intolerant]], supporting the theory that lactose intolerance was still common at that time, despite the increasing spread of agriculture and dairying.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-10 |title=Iceman Lived a While After Arrow Wound |url=http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-mummy-blood-120502.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819212358/http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-mummy-blood-120502.html |archive-date=2012-08-19 |website=DNews}}</ref> Ötzi's lungs were examined endoscopically and were found to be blackened by soot, probably due to his frequent proximity to open fires for warmth and cooking.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ötzi the Iceman, Museum of Archaeology Bolzano |url=https://www.iceman.it/en/the-mummy/ |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=Museo archeologico dell'Alto Adige (South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Garlinghouse |first=Tom |last2=Leggett |first2=Jessica |date=14 December 2021 |title=Ötzi the Iceman: The famous frozen mummy |url=https://www.livescience.com/otzi-the-iceman |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=Live Science}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hrodey |first=Matt |date=23 August 2023 |title=A DNA Analysis Upends What We Thought Ötzi the Iceman Looked Like |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/a-dna-analysis-upends-what-we-thought-oetzi-the-iceman-looked-like |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=Discover Magazine}}</ref>

===Skeletal details and tattooing===
Ötzi had a total of 61 [[tattoo]]s, consisting of 19 groups of black lines ranging from {{cvt|1|-|3|mm}} in width and {{cvt|7|-|40|mm}} in length.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Samadelli |first=M |last2=M Melis |last3=M Miccoli |last4=E Egarter-Vigl |last5=AR Zink |date=2015 |title=Complete Mapping of the Tattoos of the 5300-year-old Tyrolean Iceman |journal=Journal of Cultural Heritage |volume=16 |pages=753–758 |doi=10.1016/j.culher.2014.12.005 |number=5}}</ref> These include groups of parallel lines running along the longitudinal axis of his body and to both sides of the [[Lumbar vertebrae|lumbar spine]], as well as a [[cruciform]] mark behind the right knee and on the right ankle, and parallel lines around the left wrist. The greatest concentration of markings is found on his legs, which together exhibit 12 groups of lines.<ref name="Deter-Wolf-2015">{{Cite web |last=Deter-Wolf |first=Aaron |date=2015-01-22 |title=Scan finds new tattoos on 5300-year-old Iceman |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113319184/scan-finds-new-tattoos-on-5300-year-old-iceman-012215/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117033016/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113319184/scan-finds-new-tattoos-on-5300-year-old-iceman-012215/ |archive-date=2015-11-17 |access-date=2015-11-16}}</ref> A microscopic examination of samples collected from these tattoos revealed that they were created from pigment manufactured out of fireplace ash or soot.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pabst |first=M.A. |last2=I Letofsky-Papst |last3=E Bock |last4=M Moser |last5=L Dorfer |last6=E Egarter-Vigl |last7=F Hoffer |date=2009 |title=The Tattoos of the Tyrolean Iceman: A Light Microscopical, Ultrastructural and Element Analytical Study |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=36 |issue=10 |pages=2335–2341 |bibcode=2009JArSc..36.2335P |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2009.06.016}}</ref> This pigment was then rubbed into small linear incisions or punctures.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020">{{Cite journal |last=Piombino-Mascali |first=Dario |last2=Krutak |first2=Lars |name-list-style=amp |date=2020 |editor-last=Sheridan |editor-first=Susan Guise |editor2-last=Gregoricka |editor2-first=Lesley A. |title=Therapeutic Tattoos and Ancient Mummies: The Case of the Iceman |series=Bioarchaeology and Social Theory |language=en |publisher=Springer International Publishing |pages=119–136 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-32181-9_6 |isbn=978-3-030-32181-9 |s2cid=213402907 |work=Purposeful Pain: The Bioarchaeology of Intentional Suffering |place=Cham}}</ref> It has been suggested that he was repeatedly tattooed in the same locations, since the majority of them are quite dark.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020" />

[[Radiology|Radiological]] examination of his bones showed "age-conditioned or strain-induced degeneration" corresponding to many tattooed areas, including [[osteochondrosis]] and slight [[spondylosis]] in the lumbar spine and wear-and-tear degeneration in the knee and especially in the ankle joints.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spindler |first=Konrad |title=The man in the ice |publisher=Phoenix |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7538-1260-0 |pages=178–184}}</ref> It has been speculated that these tattoos may have been part of pain relief treatments similar to [[acupressure]] or [[acupuncture]],<ref name="Deter-Wolf-2015" /> though Ötzi lived at least 2,000 years before their previously known earliest use in China ({{c.}} 1000 BC).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dorfer |first=L |last2=M Moser |last3=F Bahr |last4=K Spindler |last5=E Egarter-Vigl |last6=S Giullén |last7=G Dohr |last8=T Kenner |date=September 1999 |title=A medical report from the stone age? |journal=The Lancet |volume=354 |issue=9183 |pages=1023–1025 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)12242-0 |pmid=10501382 |s2cid=29084491}}</ref> For example, 9 of the 19 groups of his tattoos are located next to, or directly on, acupunctural areas used today, and most of the others are on [[meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] and other acupunctural regions of the body and over arthritic joints. Ötzi's abdominal tattoos may have assuaged the intestinal pain of [[whipworm]], which he is thought to have had.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020" /><ref name="Zink-2019">{{Cite journal |last=Zink |first=Albert |last2=Samadelli |first2=Marco |last3=Gostner |first3=Paul |last4=Piombino-Mascali |first4=Dario |date=2019-06-01 |title=Possible evidence for care and treatment in the Tyrolean Iceman |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1879981718300883 |journal=International Journal of Paleopathology |language=en |volume=25 |pages=110–117 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2018.07.006 |issn=1879-9817 |pmid=30098946 |s2cid=51969447}}</ref>

At one point, it was thought that Ötzi was the oldest tattooed human mummy yet discovered.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deter-Wolf |first=Aaron |date=2015-11-11 |title=It's official: Ötzi the Iceman has the oldest tattoos in the world |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113410697/its-official-otzi-the-iceman-has-the-oldest-tattoos-in-the-world-111115/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115131532/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113410697/its-official-otzi-the-iceman-has-the-oldest-tattoos-in-the-world-111115/ |archive-date=2015-11-15 |access-date=2015-11-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deter-Wolf |first=Aaron |last2=Robitaille |first2=Benoît |last3=Krutak |first3=Lars |last4=Galliot |first4=Sébastien |date=February 2016 |title=The World's Oldest Tattoos |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01227846 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=5 |pages=19–24 |bibcode=2016JArSR...5...19D |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.007 |s2cid=162580662}}</ref> In 2018, however, tattoos were discovered on nearly contemporaneous Egyptian mummies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daley |first=Jason |date=2019-12-05 |title=Infrared Reveals Egyptian Mummies' Hidden Tattoos |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/infrared-reveals-egyptian-mummies-hidden-tattoos-180973700/ |access-date=2020-06-20 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

Many of Ötzi's tattoos originally went unnoticed, since they are difficult to see with the naked eye. In 2015, researchers photographed the body using noninvasive [[Multispectral image|multispectral]] techniques to capture images on different light wavelengths that are imperceptible by humans, revealing the remainder of his tattoos.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020" /><ref name="Zink-2019" />

===Clothes and shoes===
[[File:Archeoparc - Museum Ötzi Kleidung.jpg|thumb|upright|Reconstruction of the neolithic clothes worn by Ötzi at the Archeoparc Museum]]

Ötzi wore a cloak made of woven grass{{efn|In the book ''Cookwise'' by Shirley Corriher, the point is made (in relation to cooking) that plant leaves have a waterproof, waxy [[cuticle]] which makes raindrops roll off, with the comment "it was interesting that the 5,000-year-old Alpine traveler&nbsp;... had a grass raincoat".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shirley O. Corriher |author-link=Shirley Corriher |title=Cookwise: The Hows and Whys of Successful Cooking |publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-688-10229-6 |location=New York |page=312}}</ref>}} and a coat, a belt, a pair of leggings, a loincloth, and shoes, all made of leather of different skins. He also wore a bearskin cap with a leather chin strap. The shoes were waterproof and wide, seemingly designed for walking across the snow; they were constructed using bearskin for the soles, deer hide for the top panels, and a netting made of tree bark. Soft grass went around the foot and in the shoe and functioned like modern socks. The coat, belt, leggings and loincloth were constructed of vertical strips of leather sewn together with [[sinew]]. His belt had a pouch sewn to it that contained a cache of useful items: a scraper, a drill, a flint flake, a bone awl and a dried fungus (see [[#Tools and equipment]] below).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Belt and Pouch |url=http://www.iceman.it/en/node/275 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311083938/http://www.iceman.it/en/node/275 |archive-date=2009-03-11 |access-date=2016-04-23 |publisher=South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology}}</ref>

[[File:OtzishoesS1340065.jpg|thumb|left|A replica of Ötzi's shoe at the [[Bata Shoe Museum]]]]

The shoes have since been reproduced by a Czech academic, who said that "because the shoes are actually quite complex, I'm convinced that even 5,300 years ago, people had the equivalent of a [[Shoemaker|cobbler]] who made shoes for other people". The reproductions were found to constitute such excellent footwear that it was reported that a Czech company offered to purchase the rights to sell them.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Krosnar |first=Katka |date=2005-07-17 |title=Now you can walk in footsteps of 5,000-year-old Iceman – wearing his boots |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1494238/Now-you-can-walk-in-footsteps-of-5000-year-old-Iceman-wearing-his-boots.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629175118/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1494238/Now-you-can-walk-in-footsteps-of-5000-year-old-Iceman-wearing-his-boots.html |archive-date=2011-06-29 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> However, a more recent hypothesis by British archaeologist [[Jacqui Wood]] is that Ötzi's shoes were actually the upper part of [[snowshoe]]s. According to this theory, the item currently interpreted as part of a backpack is actually the wood frame and netting of one snowshoe and animal hide to cover the face.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hammond, Norman |date=2005-02-21 |title=Iceman was wearing 'earliest snowshoes' |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/life/courtsocial/article1814891.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129034417/http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001167.html |archive-date=2014-11-29 |access-date=2013-11-24 |url-status=live |work=[[The Times]]}}</ref>

The leather loincloth and hide coat were made from sheepskin. Genetic analysis showed that the sheep species was nearer to modern domestic European sheep than to wild sheep; the items were made from the skins of at least four animals. Part of the coat was made from a domesticated goat belonging to a mitochondrial [[haplogroup]] (a common female ancestor) that inhabits central Europe today. The coat was made from several animals from two different species and was stitched together using hides. The leggings were made from domesticated goat leather.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Netburn |first=Deborah |date=2016-08-18 |title=How Otzi the Iceman outfitted himself: Fur from brown bears and leather from roe deer |url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-otzi-iceman-garments-quiver-20160818-snap-story.html |access-date=2022-10-31 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> A similar set of 5,000-year-old leggings discovered in [[Schnidejoch]], [[Switzerland]], were made from goat leather as well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bechtel |first=Dale |date=2008-08-21 |title=New details emerge about Neolithic age in Alps |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/new-details-emerge-about-neolithic-age-in-alps/1014380 |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=swissinfo.ch |language=en}}</ref>

Irish and Italian researchers were able to undertake an analysis of the mitochondrial DNA from six different items of the body's clothing and published their findings in the journal Scientific Reports. These showed that the shoelaces were made from the European genetic population of cattle. The quiver was made from wild [[roe deer]], the fur hat was made from a genetic lineage of [[brown bear]] which lives in the region today.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davis |first=Nicola |date=2016-08-30 |title=It becometh the iceman: clothing study reveals stylish secrets of leather-loving ancient |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/aug/18/it-becometh-the-iceman-otzi-clothing-study-reveals-stylish-secrets-of-leather-loving-ancient |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830164637/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/aug/18/it-becometh-the-iceman-otzi-clothing-study-reveals-stylish-secrets-of-leather-loving-ancient |archive-date=2016-08-30 |access-date=2016-08-30 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Romey |first=Kristin |date=18 August 2016 |title=Here's What the Iceman Was Wearing When He Died 5,300 Years Ago |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/otzi-iceman-european-alps-mummy-clothing-dna-leather-fur-archaeology |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819105927/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/otzi-iceman-european-alps-mummy-clothing-dna-leather-fur-archaeology/ |archive-date=2016-08-19 |access-date=2016-08-18 |magazine=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Sullivan |first=Niall J. |last2=Teasdale |first2=Matthew D. |last3=Mattiangeli |first3=Valeria |last4=Maixner |first4=Frank |last5=Pinhasi |first5=Ron |last6=Bradley |first6=Daniel G. |last7=Zink |first7=Albert |date=2016-08-18 |title=A whole mitochondria analysis of the Tyrolean Iceman's leather provides insights into the animal sources of Copper Age clothing |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |language=en |volume=6 |pages=31279 |bibcode=2016NatSR...631279O |doi=10.1038/srep31279 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=4989873 |pmid=27537861}}</ref>

===Tools and equipment===
[[File:Ötzi the Iceman - Lithic assemblage.png|thumb|Lineup of Ötzi's lithic assemblage: {{olist|list_style_type=lower-alpha
  | Dagger
  | Endscraper
  | Small flake
  | Arrowhead 14
  | Arrowhead 12
  | Borer<ref>Wierer, U., Arrighi, S., Bertola, S., Kaufmann, G., Baumgarten, B., Pedrotti, A., Pernter, P. and Pelegrin, J. (2018) "The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use". ''PLOS ONE'', '''13'''(6): e0198292. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0198292}} The original caption in Wierer et al. read "The Iceman lithic assemblage. a) Dagger, b) Endscraper, c) Borer, d) Arrowhead 14, e) Arrowhead 12, f) Small flake." The text of Wierer et al.'s paper makes it clear that this a typo and the labels for the borer and small flake have been swapped. e.g.: "The 48.5 mm long artefact known as a borer has its maximum thickness at its maximum width (7.8 x 13.5 mm) (Fig 1F)" and "The smallest item contained in the belt poach is a small flake of 19 x 12.5 x 1.6 mm size (Fig 1C)".</ref>}}]]

Other items found with the Iceman were a copper axe with a [[Taxus baccata|yew]] handle, a [[chert]]-bladed [[knife]] with an [[ash tree|ash]] handle and a [[quiver]] of 14 arrows with [[viburnum]] and [[dogwood]] shafts.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fleur |first=Nicholas St |date=2018-06-21 |title=The Final Hours of the Iceman's Tools |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/21/science/otzi-iceman-tools.html?rref=collection/column/trilobites |access-date=2018-07-04 |work=The New York Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Petraglia |first=Michael D. |last2=Wierer |first2=Ursula |last3=Arrighi |first3=Simona |last4=Bertola |first4=Stefano |last5=Kaufmann |first5=Günther |last6=Baumgarten |first6=Benno |last7=Pedrotti |first7=Annaluisa |last8=Pernter |first8=Patrizia |last9=Pelegrin |first9=Jacques |year=2018 |editor-last=Petraglia |editor-first=Michael D. |title=The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=e0198292 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1398292W |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0198292 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6010222 |pmid=29924811 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Two of the arrows, which were broken, were tipped with flint and had [[fletching]] (stabilizing fins), while the other 12 were unfinished and untipped. The arrows were found in a [[quiver]] with what is presumed to be a [[bow string]], an unidentified tool, and an [[antler]] tool which might have been used for sharpening arrow points.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Brenda |title=Iceman: Uncovering the Life and Times of a Prehistoric Man found in an Alpine Glacier |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-226-25823-2 |location=Chicago, Ill. |pages=105–106}}</ref> There was also an unfinished yew [[longbow]] that was {{cvt|1.82|m|in}} long.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |author-link=Norman Davies |title=Europe: A History |title-link=Europe: A History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 |location=Oxford}}</ref>

[[File:ReconstructedOetziAxe.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A replica of Ötzi's copper axe]]

In addition, among Ötzi's possessions were [[berries]], two [[birch bark]] baskets, and two species of [[polypore]] [[mushroom]]s with leather strings through them. One of these, the [[birch bracket|birch fungus]], is known to have [[anthelmintic]] properties, and was probably used for medicinal purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Capasso |first=Luigi |date=December 1998 |title=5300 years ago, the Ice Man used natural laxatives and antibiotics |journal=Lancet |volume=352 |issue=9143 |pages=1864 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79939-6 |pmid=9851424 |s2cid=40027370 |doi-access=free}}<!-- note: title of this letter is not relevant to its content --></ref> The other was a type of [[tinder fungus]], included with part of what appeared to be a complex [[firelighting]] kit. The kit featured pieces of over a dozen different plants, in addition to flint and [[pyrite]] for creating sparks.

Ötzi's copper [[axe]] was of particular interest. His axe's [[Axe#Parts of the axe|haft]] is {{cvt|60|cm|in}} long and made from carefully worked [[Taxus#Uses and traditions|yew]] with a right-angled crook at the shoulder, leading to the blade. The {{convert|9.5|cm|in|-long|adj=mid}} axe head is made of almost pure copper.<ref name="Axe">{{Cite web |title=The Axe – Ötzi – South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology |url=http://www.iceman.it/en/node/277 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116010012/http://www.iceman.it/en/node/277 |archive-date=2010-11-16 |access-date=2010-09-12 |website=iceman.it}}</ref> It was produced through [[casting]] and did not undergo mechanical hardening. Despite the fact that copper ore sources in the Alpines are known to have been exploited at the time, a 2017 study indicated that the copper in the axe came from southern [[Tuscany]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Artioli |first=Gilberto |last2=Angelini |first2=Ivana |last3=Kaufmann |first3=Günther |last4=Canovaro |first4=Caterina |last5=Dal Sasso |first5=Gregorio |last6=Villa |first6=Igor Maria |date=2017 |title=Long-distance connections in the Copper Age: New evidence from the Alpine Iceman's copper axe |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318218710 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=e0179263 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1279263A |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179263 |pmc=5497943 |pmid=28678801 |access-date=29 December 2023 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It was let into the forked end of the crook and fixed there using [[birch-tar]] and tight leather [[Lashing (ropework)|lashing]]. The blade part of the head extends out of the lashing and shows clear signs of having been used to chop and cut. At the time, such an axe would have been a valuable possession, important both as a tool and as a [[status symbol]] for the bearer.<ref name="Axe" />

===Genetic analysis===
Ötzi's full genome was first sequenced in 2012;<ref name="Keller-2012">{{Cite journal |last=Keller |first=Andreas |last2=Graefen |first2=Angela |last3=Ball |first3=Markus |last4=Matzas |first4=Mark |last5=Boisguerin |first5=Valesca |last6=Maixner |first6=Frank |last7=Leidinger |first7=Petra |last8=Backes |first8=Christina |last9=Khairat |first9=Rabab |last10=Forster |first10=Michael |last11=Stade |first11=Björn |last12=Franke |first12=Andre |last13=Mayer |first13=Jens |last14=Spangler |first14=Jessica |last15=McLaughlin |first15=Stephen |display-authors=2 |date=2012-02-28 |title=New insights into the Tyrolean Iceman's origin and phenotype as inferred by whole-genome sequencing |journal=Nature Communications |volume=3 |page=698 |bibcode=2012NatCo...3..698K |doi=10.1038/ncomms1701 |pmid=22426219 |doi-access=free |last16=Shah |first16=Minita |last17=Lee |first17=Clarence |last18=Harkins |first18=Timothy T. |last19=Sartori |first19=Alexander |last20=Moreno-Estrada |first20=Andres |last21=Henn |first21=Brenna |last22=Sikora |first22=Martin |last23=Semino |first23=Ornella |last24=Chiaroni |first24=Jacques |last25=Rootsi |first25=Siiri |last26=Myres |first26=Natalie M. |last27=Cabrera |first27=Vicente M. |last28=Underhill |first28=Peter A. |last29=Bustamante |first29=Carlos D. |last30=Vigl |first30=Eduard Egarter}}</ref> a new, high-coverage genome with much less modern human contamination was published in 2023.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ke |display-authors=etal |date=2023 |title=High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry |journal=Cell Genomics |volume=3 |issue=9 |page=100377 |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377 |pmc=10504632 |pmid=37719142 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to the 2012 study, the [[Y chromosome]] DNA of Ötzi belongs to a [[Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)|subclade of G]] defined by the SNPs M201, P287, P15, L223 and L91 (G-L91, ISOGG G2a2b, former "G2a4"). He was not typed for any of the subclades downstreaming from G-L91; however, an analysis of his [[Binary Alignment Map]] file revealed that he belongs to the L166 and FGC5672 subclades below L91.<ref>{{Cite web |title=G-FGC5672 YTree |url=https://www.yfull.com/tree/G-FGC5672/}}</ref> G-L91 is now mostly found in South [[Corsica]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Di Cristofaro |first=Julie |last2=Mazières |first2=Stéphane |last3=Tous |first3=Audrey |last4=Di Gaetano |first4=Cornelia |last5=Lin |first5=Alice A. |last6=Nebbia |first6=Paul |last7=Piazza |first7=Alberto |last8=King |first8=Roy J. |last9=Underhill |first9=Peter |last10=Chiaroni |first10=Jacques |date=2018-08-01 |title=Prehistoric migrations through the Mediterranean basin shaped Corsican Y-chromosome diversity |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=e0200641 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1300641D |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0200641 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6070208 |pmid=30067762 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Analysis of his mitochondrial DNA showed that Ötzi belongs to the K1 subclade, but cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade (K1a, K1b, or K1c). The new subclade has provisionally been named ''K1ö'' for ''Ötzi''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ermini |first=Luca |last2=Olivieri |first2=Cristina |last3=Rizzi |first3=Ermanno |last4=Corti |first4=Giorgio |last5=Bonnal |first5=Raoul |last6=Soares |first6=Pedro |last7=Luciani |first7=Stefania |last8=Marota |first8=Isolina |last9=De Bellis |first9=Gianluca |last10=Richards |first10=Martin B. |last11=Rollo |first11=Franco |year=2008 |title=Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of the Tyrolean Iceman |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=21 |pages=1687–1693 |bibcode=2008CBio...18.1687E |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.028 |pmid=18976917 |s2cid=13983702 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A multiplex assay study was able to confirm that the Iceman's mtDNA belongs to a previously unknown European mtDNA clade with a very limited distribution among modern data sets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Endicott |first=Phillip |last2=Sanchez |first2=Juan J |last3=Pichler |first3=Irene |last4=Brotherton |first4=Paul |last5=Brooks |first5=Jerome |last6=Egarter-Vigl |first6=Eduard |last7=Cooper |first7=Alan |last8=Pramstaller |first8=Peter |year=2009 |title=Genotyping human ancient mtDNA control and coding region polymorphisms with a multiplexed Single-Base-Extension assay: The singular maternal history of the Tyrolean Iceman |journal=BMC Genetics |volume=10 |pages=29 |doi=10.1186/1471-2156-10-29 |pmc=2717998 |pmid=19545382 |doi-access=free}}</ref> By [[autosomal DNA]], Ötzi is most closely related to [[Indigenous peoples of Europe|Southern Europeans]], especially to geographically isolated populations like [[Corsicans]] and [[Sardinians]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-11-19 |title=Ancient DNA reveals genetic relationship between today's Sardinians and Neolithic Europeans – HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology |url=http://hudsonalpha.org/ancient-dna-reveals-genetic-relationship-between-todays-sardinians-and-neolithic-europeans |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008061113/http://hudsonalpha.org/ancient-dna-reveals-genetic-relationship-between-todays-sardinians-and-neolithic-europeans |archive-date=2016-10-08 |access-date=2016-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keller |first=Andreas |last2=Graefen |first2=Angela |last3=Ball |first3=Markus |last4=Matzas |first4=Mark |last5=Boisguerin |first5=Valesca |last6=Maixner |first6=Frank |last7=Leidinger |first7=Petra |last8=Backes |first8=Christina |last9=Khairat |first9=Rabab |last10=Forster |first10=Michael |last11=Stade |first11=Björn |last12=Franke |first12=Andre |last13=Mayer |first13=Jens |last14=Spangler |first14=Jessica |last15=McLaughlin |first15=Stephen |display-authors=29 |year=2012 |title=New insights into the Tyrolean Iceman's origin and phenotype as inferred by whole-genome sequencing |journal=Nature Communications |volume=3 |pages=698 |bibcode=2012NatCo...3..698K |doi=10.1038/ncomms1701 |pmid=22426219 |doi-access=free |last16=Shah |first16=Minita |last17=Lee |first17=Clarence |last18=Harkins |first18=Timothy T. |last19=Sartori |first19=Alexander |last20=Moreno-Estrada |first20=Andres |last21=Henn |first21=Brenna |last22=Sikora |first22=Martin |last23=Semino |first23=Ornella |last24=Chiaroni |first24=Jacques |last25=Rootsi |first25=Siiri |last26=Myres |first26=Natalie M. |last27=Cabrera |first27=Vicente M. |last28=Underhill |first28=Peter A. |last29=Bustamante |first29=Carlos D. |last30=Vigl |first30=Eduard Egarter}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Callaway |first=Ewen |year=2012 |title=Iceman's DNA reveals health risks and relations |url=http://www.nature.com/news/iceman-s-dna-reveals-health-risks-and-relations-1.10130 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature.2012.10130 |s2cid=85055245 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911110500/http://www.nature.com/news/iceman-s-dna-reveals-health-risks-and-relations-1.10130 |archive-date=2016-09-11 |access-date=2016-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-02-28 |title=Tratti genetici comuni tra la mummia Oetzi e gli attuali abitanti di Sardegna e Corsica |url=http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/scienza/12/02/tratti-genetici-oetzi-abitanti-sardegna-corsica.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302190033/http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/scienza/12/02/tratti-genetici-oetzi-abitanti-sardegna-corsica.html |archive-date=2012-03-02 |publisher=Tiscali |language=it}}</ref> Ötzi traced the majority of his ancestry to the Neolithic [[Early European Farmers|early European farmers]] who [[Pre-modern human migration|migrated]] from Anatolia to Europe beginning during the 7th millennium BC, replacing earlier [[Western Hunter-Gatherer|European hunter-gatherers]] as dominant population.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pinkowski |first=Jennifer |date=2021-09-15 |title=Ötzi the Iceman: What we know 30 years after his discovery |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/tzi-the-iceman-what-we-know-30-years-after-his-discovery |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915193800/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/tzi-the-iceman-what-we-know-30-years-after-his-discovery |archive-date=15 September 2021 |work=National Geographic}}</ref> DNA analysis also showed him at high risk of [[atherosclerosis]] and [[lactose intolerance]], with the presence of the [[DNA sequencing|DNA sequence]] of ''[[Borrelia burgdorferi]]'', possibly making him the earliest known human with [[Lyme disease]].<ref name="Keller-2012" /><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Hall |first=Stephen S. |date=November 2011 |title=Iceman Autopsy |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/11/iceman-autopsy/hall-text |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172457/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/11/iceman-autopsy/hall-text |archive-date=2011-10-19 |access-date=2011-10-17 |magazine=[[National Geographic Magazine|National Geographic]]}}</ref> A later analysis suggested the sequence may have been a different ''[[Borrelia]]'' species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ames |first=S. K. |last2=Hysom |first2=D. A. |last3=Gardner |first3=S. N. |last4=Lloyd |first4=G. S. |last5=Gokhale |first5=M. B. |last6=Allen |first6=J. E. |date=2013-07-04 |title=Scalable metagenomic taxonomy classification using a reference genome database |journal=Bioinformatics |volume=29 |issue=18 |pages=2253–2260 |doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btt389 |pmc=3753567 |pmid=23828782}}</ref>

The 2023 study on Ötzi's genome found a very high proportion (90%) of [[Early European Farmers|Anatolian farmer-related]] ancestry – in fact, the highest among European populations of the same time—with a lesser contribution from  [[Western Hunter-Gatherer|European hunter-gatherer-related]] ancestry, but (in contrast to the 2012 research) no evidence of [[Western Steppe Herders|Steppe-related]] ancestry,<ref name="Wang-2023">{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ke |last2=Prüfer |first2=Kay |last3=Krause-Kyora |first3=Ben |last4=Childebayeva |first4=Ainash |last5=Schuenemann |first5=Verena J. |last6=Coia |first6=Valentina |last7=Maixner |first7=Frank |last8=Zink |first8=Albert |last9=Schiffels |first9=Stephan |last10=Krause |first10=Johannes |date=2023-08-16 |title=High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry |journal=Cell Genomics |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=100377 |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377 |issn=2666-979X |pmc=10504632 |pmid=37719142 |quote=The weighted genetic score of dark pigmentation in the Iceman is estimated to be 0.591, higher than the score of present-day southern European populations taking Sardinians as an example (Table S11), which the Iceman shares closest genetic affinity to (Figure S1) and which represent the highest level of pigmentation among modern-day European groups,29 although it is lower than the score of ancient LBK farmers and the Luxembourg_Loschbour.DG hunter-gatherer. |doi-access=free}}</ref> the disagreement with previous results being attributed to modern human contamination. 
While the absence in Ötzi's genome of genetic components from Western Steppe Herders (WSH) is not surprising because these [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|"Proto-Indo-European"]] populations [[Western Steppe Herders#Steppe Early to Middle Bronze Age|did not arrive in Europe until about 2900 BC]], the unusually low contribution from the [[Western Hunter Gatherer]]s was explained by positing that the genetic mixing between neolithic farmers originating from Anatolia and WHG was still an ongoing process. Also, examining the genetic sites involved in phenotypical traits, the authors concluded that the Iceman, among other things, had likely darker skin than present-day Europeans, but not as dark as the Mesolithic Western Hunter-Gatherers, was likely affected by baldness, and may have suffered from obesity-related metabolic disorders. The article also leaves room for environmental factors as indicative of their darker skin complexion, so more studies will be necessary in the future.<ref name="Wang-2023" />

In October 2013, it was reported that 19 modern [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrolean]] men belong to the same paternal lineage (Y-DNA haplogroup G-L91) as Ötzi, and may share a common ancestor with, and/or descend from close relatives of Ötzi. Scientists from the Institute of Legal Medicine at [[Innsbruck Medical University]] had analysed the DNA of over 3,700 Tyrolean male blood donors and found 19 (c. 0.5%) who shared the same paternal haplogroup with the 5,300-year-old man.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-10-10 |title=Link to Oetzi the Iceman found in living Austrians |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24477038 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012043826/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24477038 |archive-date=2013-10-12 |access-date=2013-10-12 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bettinger |first=Blaine |date=2013-10-16 |title=Identifying Ötzi the Iceman's Relatives |url=https://thegeneticgenealogist.com/2013/10/16/identifying-otzi-the-icemans-relatives/ |access-date=2023-07-20 |website=The Genetic Genealogist |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Blood===
In May 2012, scientists announced the discovery that Ötzi still had intact [[blood cell]]s. These are the oldest complete human blood cells ever identified. In most bodies this old, the blood cells are either shrunken or mere remnants, but Ötzi's have the same dimensions as living red blood cells and resemble a modern-day sample.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Owen |first=James |date=2012-05-02 |title=World's Oldest Blood Found in Famed "Iceman" Mummy |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120502-oldest-blood-otzi-iceman-mummy-oetzi-zink-science/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062603/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120502-oldest-blood-otzi-iceman-mummy-oetzi-zink-science/ |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=2016-03-04 |work=National Geographic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Janko |first=Marek |last2=Stark |first2=Robert W. |last3=Zink |first3=Albert |name-list-style=and |date=2012-10-07 |title=Preservation of 5300 year old red blood cells in the Iceman |journal=Journal of the Royal Society, Interface |volume=9 |issue=75 |pages=2581–2590 |doi=10.1098/rsif.2012.0174 |issn=1742-5662 |pmc=3427508 |pmid=22552923}}</ref>

===''H. pylori'' analysis===
In 2016, researchers reported on a study from the extraction of twelve samples from the [[gastrointestinal tract]] of Ötzi to analyze the origins of the ''[[Helicobacter pylori]]'' in his gut.<ref name="Maixner-2016" /> The ''H. pylori'' strain found in his gastrointestinal tract was, surprisingly, the hpAsia2 strain, a strain today found primarily in South Asian and Central Asian populations, with extremely rare occurrences in modern European populations.<ref name="Maixner-2016" />  The strain found in Ötzi's gut is most similar to three modern individuals from Northern India; the strain itself is, of course, older than the modern Northern Indian strain.<ref name="Maixner-2016">{{Cite journal |last=Maixner |first=Frank |last2=Krause-Kyora |first2=Ben |name-list-style=vanc |date=2016-01-08 |title=The 5300-year-old Helicobacter pylori genome of the Iceman |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=351 |issue=6269 |pages=162–165 |bibcode=2016Sci...351..162M |doi=10.1126/science.aad2545 |pmc=4775254 |pmid=26744403}}</ref>

=== Stomach ===
Ötzi's stomach was completely full and its contents were mostly undigested. In 2018, researchers performed a thorough analysis of his stomach and intestines to gain insights on Chalcolithic meal composition and dietary habits. [[Biopsies]] were performed on the stomach to obtain dietary information in the time leading up to his death, and the contents themselves were also analyzed. Previously, Ötzi was believed to be vegetarian, but during this study, it was revealed that his diet was omnivorous. The presence of certain compounds suggests what kinds of food he generally ate, such as [[gamma-terpinene]], implying the intake of herbs, and several nutritious minerals indicating red meat or dairy consumption. Through analysis of DNA and protein traces, the researchers were able to identify the contents of Ötzi's last meal, composed of fat and meat from [[ibex]] and red deer as well as [[einkorn wheat]]. The results of [[atomic force microscopy]] and [[Raman spectroscopy]] analysis reveal that he consumed fresh or dried wild meat. A previous study detected charcoal particles in his lower intestine, which indicate that fire was present during some part of the food preparation process, but it was likely used in drying out the meat or smoking it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maixner |first=Frank |last2=Turaev |first2=Dmitrij |last3=Cazenave-Gassiot |first3=Amaury |last4=Janko |first4=Marek |last5=Krause-Kyora |first5=Ben |last6=Hoopmann |first6=Michael R. |last7=Kusebauch |first7=Ulrike |last8=Sartain |first8=Mark |last9=Guerriero |first9=Gea |last10=o'Sullivan |first10=Niall |last11=Teasdale |first11=Matthew |last12=Cipollini |first12=Giovanna |last13=Paladin |first13=Alice |last14=Mattiangeli |first14=Valeria |last15=Samadelli |first15=Marco |display-authors=29 |date=2018-07-23 |title=The Iceman's Last Meal Consisted of Fat, Wild Meat, and Cereals |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=14 |pages=2348–2355.e9 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.067 |issn=0960-9822 |pmc=6065529 |pmid=30017480 |last16=Tecchiati |first16=Umberto |last17=Putzer |first17=Andreas |last18=Palazoglu |first18=Mine |last19=Meissen |first19=John |last20=Lösch |first20=Sandra |last21=Rausch |first21=Philipp |last22=Baines |first22=John F. |last23=Kim |first23=Bum Jin |last24=An |first24=Hyun-Joo |last25=Gostner |first25=Paul |last26=Egarter-Vigl |first26=Eduard |last27=Malfertheiner |first27=Peter |last28=Keller |first28=Andreas |last29=Stark |first29=Robert W. |last30=Wenk |first30=Markus}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zink |first=Albert R. |last2=Maixner |first2=Frank |date=2019 |title=The Current Situation of the Tyrolean Iceman |url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/501878 |journal=Gerontology |language=en |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=699–706 |doi=10.1159/000501878 |issn=0304-324X |pmid=31505504 |s2cid=202555446}}</ref>
===After death===
Analysis shows that the tissues had converted to [[adipocere]], a mixture of [[fatty acid]]s, before desiccation.
Rather than ice, the body had been in water for months over several seasons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Brenda |url=https://archive.org/details/icemanuncovering00fowl/page/270/mode/1up |title=Iceman : uncovering the life and times of a prehistoric man found in an alpine glacier |date=2000 |publisher=New York : Random House |isbn=978-0-679-43167-1 |page=268 |language=en |chapter=The place he came to lie |access-date=14 February 2025}}</ref>