Editing Æthelred I of Wessex (section)

== Reign ==
=== Civilian rule ===
[[File:Charter S 338, dated 867 of King Æthelred I of Wessex.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Charter S 338 dated 867. Æthelred, King of the West Saxons and the Men of Kent, grants Wighelm, priest, a seat in [[St Martin's Church, Canterbury]], together with land.{{sfn|Brooks and Kelly|2013|p=772}} Most charters only survive as copies, and this is the only original of Æthelred to survive.{{sfn|Smyth|1995|p=386}}]]

Æthelred succeeded to the throne on Æthelberht's death in 865, and he married [[Wulfthryth of Wessex|Wulfthryth]] at an unknown date. West Saxon kings' wives had a low status in the ninth century and very little is known about them. They were not usually given the title of ''regina'' (queen), an omission which Alfred the Great justified on the ground of the misconduct of a queen at the beginning of the ninth century. The name of Æthelred's wife is only known because she was recorded as a witness to one charter, S 340 of 868, where she is shown as ''Wulfthryth regina'', suggesting that she had a higher status than other kings' wives. The only other ninth century king's wife known to have been given the title was [[Æthelwulf]]'s second wife, [[Judith of Flanders]], a great-granddaughter of [[Charlemagne]]. Wulfthryth and Æthelred had two known sons, Æthelhelm and [[Æthelwold ætheling|Æthelwold]].{{sfnm|1a1=Keynes and Lapidge|1y=1983|1pp=71, 235–36, n. 28|2a1=Yorke|2y=2001 |2p=31}}{{efn|Æthelred may have had a third son, Oswald or Osweald, who witnessed two charters in 868 as ''filius regis'', and one more during Alfred's reign in 875 with the same title. [[David Dumville]] suggests that he may have been a son of Æthelred;{{sfn|Dumville|1979|p=11}} however, this is dismissed by [[Janet Nelson]] on the ground that only Æthelhelm and Æthelwold are mentioned in the prologue to Alfred's will, where he describes disputes shortly after his succession in 871 over his treatment of Æthelred's sons.{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=59}} }} She might have been Mercian{{sfn|Hollis|1992|p=215, n. 40}} or a daughter of [[Wulfhere, Ealdorman of Wiltshire]], who forfeited his lands after being charged with deserting King Alfred for the Danes in about 878, perhaps because he attempted to secure Viking support for his elder grandson Æthelhelm's claim to the throne against Alfred.{{sfn|Nelson|1986|pp=53–55}}

Alfred records in the preamble to his will that Æthelwulf had left property jointly to three of his sons, Æthelbald, Æthelred and Alfred, with the proviso that the brother who lived longest would succeed to all of it. When Æthelbald died in 860, Æthelred and Alfred, who were still young, agreed to entrust their share to the new king, Æthelberht, on a promise that he would return it to them intact. When Æthelred succeeded to the throne, Alfred asked him at a meeting of the [[witan]] (assembly of leading men) to give him his share of the property. However, Æthelred said that he had attempted many times to divide it but had found it too difficult, and he would instead leave the whole to Alfred on his death. Some historians see the bequest as including the whole of Æthelwulf's [[Bookland (law)|bookland]], his personal property which he could leave in his will (as opposed to the folkland which passed according to customary law and property earmarked for the support of the crown); it is further argued that it was considered desirable that the bookland would be kept by the king, so Æthelwulf's provision implies that the throne would pass to each brother in turn.{{sfnm|1a1=Abels|1y=2002|1pp=90–91|2a1=Keynes and Lapidge|2y=1983|2pp=174–75, 314–15, n. 3|3a1=Wormald|3y=2001|3pp=268–70}} However, other historians assert that the bequest had nothing to do with the kingship,{{sfn|Nelson|2004}} and [[Alfred P. Smyth |Alfred Smyth]] argues that the bequest was provision for Æthelwulf's young sons when they reached adulthood, with Æthelbald as trustee and residuary beneficiary if they died young.{{sfn|Smyth|1995 |pp=416–18}} When Alfred succeeded, the supporters of Æthelred's infant sons complained that Alfred should have shared the property with them, and Alfred had his father's will read to a meeting of the witan to prove his right to keep the whole of the property.{{sfn|Keynes and Lapidge|1983|pp=174–75}} Alfred rarely witnessed Æthelred's charters, and this together with the argument over their father's will suggests that they were not on good terms. The historian [[Pauline Stafford]] suggests that Æthelred chose to highlight his wife's status as queen in a charter to assert his own sons' claims to the succession.{{sfn|Stafford|2003|p=260}}

In 868, Æthelred issued a charter which was attested by a Mercian ætheling and himself attested a charter issued by his sister, Æthelswith, as queen of Mercia.{{sfn|Abels|1998|p=121}}  Æthelred used several different titles in his charters. He is called by his father's usual title, ''Rex Occidentalium Saxonum'' (King of the West Saxons) in the charter of Ealhswith which he witnessed, and in five of his own. He is "King of the West Saxons and the Men of Kent" in two, and "King" and "King of the Saxons" in one each.{{sfn|Smyth|1995|p=386}}{{efn|[[Alfred P. Smyth|Alfred Smyth]] translates Æthelred's titles as "King of Wessex" and "King of Wessex and Kent", but the translations here follow the usual (and literal) translations as "West Saxons" and "Men of Kent".{{sfnm|1a1=Smyth|1y=1995|1p=386|2a1=Brooks and Kelly|2y=2013|2p=775}} }} The West Saxon charters of Æthelred and his elder brothers followed a uniform style, suggesting that they were produced by a single agency which operated over a number of years.{{sfn|Keynes|1994|p=1126}}{{efn|Simon Keynes analysed Æthelred's West Saxon charters (not his Kentish ones) in his "The West Saxon Charters of King Æthelwulf and his Sons".{{sfn|Keynes|1994|pp=1123–30}} }}

=== The Viking invasions ===
[[File:England Great Army map.svg|thumb|Routes taken by the [[Great Heathen Army]] from 865 to 878|upright=1.85]]

The character of Viking attacks on England decisively changed in the year that Æthelred succeeded to the throne. Previously the country had suffered from sporadic raids, but now it faced an invasion aiming at conquest and settlement. A large force of Vikings, called by contemporaries the [[Great Heathen Army]], arrived in [[Kingdom of East Anglia|East Anglia]]. King [[Edmund the Martyr|Edmund]] purchased peace by paying tribute and the Vikings stayed a year building up their strength. They then marched on [[York]] and conquered [[Northumbria]], installing a puppet king. In late 867, they took [[Nottingham]] in Mercia and spent the winter there. Æthelred's brother-in-law, King Burgred, appealed to him for help. Æthelred and Alfred led a large West Saxon army to Nottingham and besieged the Vikings, but they refused to leave the safety of the town's defences. The combined Mercian and West Saxon armies were unable to breach the earth ramparts and ditch, and eventually Burgred bought them off. The Vikings then went back to York.{{sfn|Abels|1998|pp=114–20}}{{efn|In 874, the Vikings took control of Mercia and drove Burgred and Æthelswith into exile.{{sfn|Kelly|2004}} }}

In 869, the Vikings returned to East Anglia and conquered the kingdom, killing King Edmund. In December 870, they launched an attempt to conquer Wessex led by Kings [[Bagsecg]] and [[Halfdan Ragnarsson |Halfdan]]. They occupied [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] on around 28 December. The town is between the [[Thames]] and [[River Kennet|Kennet]] rivers, and they set about building a ditch and rampart on the southern side between the two rivers. Three days after their arrival they sent out a large foraging party, which was defeated by an army of local levies under the command of [[Æthelwulf of Berkshire|Æthelwulf]], Ealdorman of [[Berkshire]], at the [[Battle of Englefield]]. After another four days, on about 4 January 871, Æthelred and Alfred brought up the main West Saxon army and joined Æthelwulf's forces for an attack on the Danes in the [[Battle of Reading (871)|Battle of Reading]]. The West Saxons fought their way to the town, slaughtering all the Danes they found outside, but when they reached the town gate the Vikings burst out and defeated the West Saxons with a successful counter-attack. Among the dead was Æthelwulf, whose body was secretly carried off to be buried in his native [[Derby]].{{sfnm|1a1=Abels|1y=1998|1pp=124–27|2a1=Beaven|2y=1918|2p=334}} According to the twelfth-century chronicler [[Geoffrey Gaimar|Gaimar]], Æthelred and Alfred only escaped due to their better knowledge of the local terrain, which allowed them to lose their pursuers by fording the [[River Loddon]] at [[Twyford, Berkshire|Twyford]] and going on to [[Whistley Green]], which is around {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=off}} east of Reading.{{sfn|Smyth|1995|p=34}}

Four days later, on about 8 January, the armies met again in the [[Battle of Ashdown]]. The location of the battle is unknown, but may be [[Moulsford|Kingstanding Hill]], {{convert|13|mi|km|abbr=off}} north-west of Reading. According to Asser's account, the Vikings arrived first at the battle ground and deployed along the top of the ridge, giving them the advantage. They divided their forces into two contingents, one under their two kings and the other under their earls. When the West Saxons saw this, they decided to copy the formation, with Æthelred facing the kings and Alfred the earls. The king then retired to his tent to hear [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], while Alfred led his forces to the battlefield. Both sides formed their forces into [[shield wall]]s. Æthelred would not cut short his devotions{{efn|According to Asser: "Alfred and his men reached the battlefield sooner and in better order: for his brother, King Æthelred, was still at his tent in prayer, hearing Mass and declaring firmly that he would not leave that place alive before the priest had finished Mass, and that he would not forsake divine service for that of men; and he did what he said. The faith of the Christian king counted for much with the Lord, as shall be shown more clearly in what follows.{{sfn|Keynes and Lapidge|1983|p=79}} }} and Alfred risked being outflanked and overwhelmed by the whole Danish army. He decided to attack and led his men in a charge. Battle then raged around a small thorn tree and finally the West Saxons were victorious. Although Asser emphasises Alfred's role in the victory and implies that Æthelred was dilatory, in the view of the military historian John Peddie, Æthelred was militarily correct to delay joining the battle until the situation was in his favour. The Vikings suffered heavy losses, including King Bagsecg and five earls, Sidroc the Old, Sidroc the Younger, Osbern, Fræna and Harold. The West Saxons followed the Viking flight until nightfall, cutting them down.{{sfnm|1a1=Abels|1y=1998 |1pp=129–31|2a1=Peddie|2y=1989|2pp=82–88|3a1=Beaven|3y=1918|3p=334}} The historian [[Barbara Yorke]], who sees Asser's biography as intended to portray Alfred as an ideal king, comments that "Asser is particularly careful to give much credit to Alfred".{{sfn|Yorke|1995|pp=105–06, 109}}

However, the victory was short-lived. Two weeks later, Æthelred and Alfred were defeated at the royal estate of [[Old Basing|Basing]] in the [[Battle of Basing]]. There was then a lull of two months until the West Saxons and the Vikings met at an unknown location called Meretun. In the [[Battle of Meretun|battle]] on 22 March the Vikings again divided into two divisions and the West Saxons had the advantage for much of the day, putting both divisions to flight, but the Vikings regrouped and finally held control of the battlefield. The West Saxons lost many important men, including [[Heahmund]], the [[Bishop of Sherborne]].{{sfnm|1a1=Abels|1y=1998|1pp=131–34|2a1=Beaven|2y=1918|2p=334}}{{efn|The death of Bishop Heahmund in the battle dates the sequence of events, as it is known that he died on 22 March 871. The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' records that the Battle of Basing was two months before Meretun, dating it to 22 January, Ashdown fourteen days before that on 8 January, Reading four days earlier on 4 January, Englefield another four days earlier on 31 December 870 and the arrival of the Vikings in Reading three days earlier on 28 December. However, as the two month interval between Marton and Basing is probably not exact, the earlier dates are approximate.{{sfn|Beaven|1918|p=334}} }}

=== Coinage ===
{{main|History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)}}
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In the late eighth and ninth centuries, the only denomination of coin produced in southern England was the silver penny.{{sfn|Naismith|2012|p=203}} As of 2007, 152 coins of Æthelred struck by 32 different moneyers have been recorded.{{efn|There are also ten coins of [[Ceolnoth]], who was [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] until his death in 870.{{sfn|Lyons and Mackay|2007|p=77}} }} His reign is described by the numismatists Adrian Lyons and William Mackay as "a critical point in the development of the English coinage". His first Four Line issue was stylistically similar to the Floriate Cross penny of his predecessor, Æthelberht, but he soon abandoned this and adopted the design of his Mercian brother-in-law, Burgred, resulting in a common coinage design across southern England for the first time.{{sfn|Lyons and Mackay|2007|pp=71–72, 77, 98–99}} The historian and numismatist [[Rory Naismith]] comments that Æthelred:

<blockquote>took the important step of adopting a new coin-type based not on local tradition, but on the Lunettes-type current in contemporary Mercia. The year 865 thus saw not only the arrival of the Viking great army that would dismantle most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, but also the beginning of the end for separate coinages in separate kingdoms.{{sfn|Naismith|2012|p=11}}</blockquote>

[[File:Coin of King Æthelberht of Wessex (cropped).JPG|thumb|Silver penny of King Æthelberht of [[Wessex]] (Æthelred's predecessor)|upright=1.15]]

Lyons and Mackay see the change as even more crucial:

<blockquote>The developments of the late 860s can thus be viewed as an essential precursor that eventually led to the unified [[History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)#Edgar's reform, c. 973 and the late Anglo-Saxon coinage|reform coinage]] of [[Edgar the Peaceful|Edgar]].{{efn|name=reform|Edgar's radical coinage reform of the 970s heralded a monetary system which was the most sophisticated in Europe. It lasted 150 years.{{sfn|Blackburn|2014|p=116}} }} This convergence of the coinage is also tangible evidence for a growing collaboration between Mercia and Wessex which foreshadowed the eventual creation of a unified England.{{sfn|Lyons and Mackay|2007|pp=71–72}}</blockquote>

[[File:Burgred, King of Mercia, silver penny (phase IIb); struck 866–868∕870 AD.jpg|thumb|Silver penny of [[Burgred of Mercia|King Burgred]] of [[Mercia]] (Æthelred's brother-in-law), struck 866–870|upright=1.15]]

The single coinage design created a form of monetary union in southern England, reinforcing the mingling of economic interests between the two kingdoms and the military alliance against the Vikings. Coin hoards in Wessex dating to the earlier period of separate coinage designs have few non-Wessex coins, but after the adoption of the common Lunettes design, coins of Wessex and Mercia were used in both kingdoms, and even in Wessex hoards coins of Æthelred I form a minor proportion of the total. Between one and one and a half million Æthelred I Regular Lunette coins were produced, but this seems to have been significantly less than in Mercia. It is not known why the Mercian design was adopted, but it probably reflects the fact that the Lunette type had already been used for more than twelve years, the simplicity of the design, which could easily be copied, and the greater strength of the Mercian economy.{{sfn|Lyons and Mackay|2007|pp=73–79}} The bulk of surviving Æthelred I coins are of the Regular Lunettes design, with 118 coins struck by 21 moneyers, six of whom are known to have also worked for Burgred; the coins are notable for consistency in design and good quality of execution, and they were mainly produced by [[Canterbury]] moneyers, with a few in the Mercian town of London.{{sfn|Lyons and Mackay|2007|pp=85–87}} Only one coin is known which was produced in Wessex itself.{{sfn|Naismith |2012|p=110}} There were also Irregular Lunettes issues, one of which was a degraded and crude variant, perhaps a result of a breakdown in controls at the end of Æthelred's reign, when Wessex was under the pressure of Viking attacks.{{sfn|Lyons and Mackay|2007|pp=93, 100}} Alfred kept the Lunettes design for a short period following his accession in 871, but the design disappears from hoards deposited after around 875.{{sfn|Lyons and Mackay|2007|pp=74, 94}}