Editing Uranium (section)

==Human exposure==
A person can be exposed to uranium (or its [[decay product|radioactive daughters]], such as [[radon]]) by inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. The amount of uranium in air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that process [[phosphate]] [[fertilizer]]s, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work near a modern battlefield where depleted uranium [[weapons]] have been used, or live or work near a [[coal]]-fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium.<ref name="EPA-Rad">{{cite web |date=16 February 2023 |title=Radionuclide Basics: Uranium |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |url=https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclide-basics-uranium |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="ATSDR-ToxFAQ">{{cite web |title=ToxFAQ for Uranium |url=https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxFAQs/ToxFAQsDetails.aspx?faqid=439&toxid=77 |access-date=19 April 2023 |publisher=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |date=18 March 2014}}</ref> Houses or structures that are over uranium deposits (either natural or man-made slag deposits) may have an increased incidence of exposure to radon gas. The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set the [[permissible exposure limit]] for uranium exposure in the workplace as 0.25&nbsp;mg/m{{sup|3}} over an 8-hour workday. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) of 0.2&nbsp;mg/m{{sup|3}} over an 8-hour workday and a short-term limit of 0.6&nbsp;mg/m{{sup|3}}. At 10&nbsp;mg/m{{sup|3}}, uranium is [[IDLH|immediately dangerous to life and health]].<ref>{{cite web |date=30 October 2019 |title=CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Uranium (insoluble compounds, as U) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0650.html |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health}}</ref>

Most ingested uranium is excreted during [[digestion]]. Only 0.5% is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested, whereas absorption of the more soluble [[uranyl]] ion can be up to 5%.{{sfn|Emsley|2001|p=477}} However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body, whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when inhaled by way of dust into the [[lung]]s, pose a more serious exposure hazard. After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends to [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] and stay for many years in [[bone]] tissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates.{{sfn|Emsley|2001|p=477}} Incorporated uranium becomes [[uranyl]] ions, which accumulate in bone, liver, kidney, and reproductive tissues.<ref>{{cite book |last=Permyakov |first=Eugene |title=Metalloproteomics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |place=Hoboken |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-470-44774-1 |oclc=609844907 |page=564}}</ref>

Radiological and chemical toxicity of uranium combine by the fact that elements of high atomic number like uranium exhibit phantom or secondary radiotoxicity through absorption of natural background gamma and X-rays and re-emission of photoelectrons, which in combination with the high affinity of uranium to the phosphate moiety of DNA cause increased single and double strand DNA breaks.<ref>Busby, C. and Schnug, E. (2008). "Advanced biochemical and biophysical aspects of uranium contamination". In: De Kok, L.J. and Schnug, E. (Eds) ''Loads and Fate of Fertilizer Derived Uranium''. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands. {{ISBN| 978-90-5782-193-6}}</ref>

Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, and [[alpha particle]]s released by uranium cannot penetrate the skin.<ref name="epa" />

Uranium can be decontaminated from steel surfaces<ref name="Francis">{{cite journal |pmid=16053105 |date=2005 |last1=Francis |first1=A. J. |last2=Dodge |first2=C. J. |last3=McDonald |first3=J. A. |last4=Halada |first4=G. P. |title=Decontamination of uranium-contaminated steel surfaces by hydroxycarboxylic acid with uranium recovery |volume=39 |issue=13 |pages=5015–21 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |doi=10.1021/es048887c |bibcode=2005EnST...39.5015F}}</ref> and [[aquifer]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gandhi |first1=T. Pushparaj |last2=Sampath |first2=Prasanna Venkatesh |last3=Maliyekkal |first3=Shihabudheen M. |date=2022-06-15 |title=A critical review of uranium contamination in groundwater: Treatment and sludge disposal |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |volume=825 |pages=153947 |pmid=35189244 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153947 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.82553947G |s2cid=246988421 |issn=1879-1026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Prusty |first1=Sourav |last2=Somu |first2=Prathap |last3=Sahoo |first3=Jitendra Kumar |last4=Panda |first4=Debasish |last5=Sahoo |first5=Sunil Kumar |last6=Sahoo |first6=Shraban Kumar |last7=Lee |first7=Yong Rok |last8=Jarin |first8=T. |last9=Sundar |first9=L. Syam |last10=Rao |first10=Koppula Srinivas |date=December 2022 |title=Adsorptive sequestration of noxious uranium (VI) from water resources: A comprehensive review |journal=Chemosphere |volume=308 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=136278 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136278 |issn=1879-1298 |pmid=36057349|bibcode=2022Chmsp.30836278P |s2cid=251999162 }}</ref>

===Effects and precautions===
Normal functioning of the [[kidney]], [[brain]], [[liver]], [[heart]], and other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because, besides being weakly radioactive, uranium is a [[Metal toxicity|toxic metal]].{{sfn|Emsley|2001|p=477}}<ref name="Craft04">{{cite journal
| title = Depleted and natural uranium: chemistry and toxicological effects
| author = Craft, E. S.
| author2 = Abu-Qare, A. W.
| author3 = Flaherty, M. M.
| author4 = Garofolo, M. C.
| author5 = Rincavage, H. L.
| author6 = Abou-Donia, M. B.
| name-list-style = amp
| journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews
| date = 2004
| volume = 7
| issue = 4
| pmid = 15205046
| pages = 297–317
| doi = 10.1080/10937400490452714| bibcode = 2004JTEHB...7..297C
| url = http://www.dmzhawaii.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/health-overview-04.pdf
| citeseerx = 10.1.1.535.5247
| s2cid = 9357795
}}</ref><ref name="ATSDR">{{cite report |title=Toxicological Profile for Uranium |chapter=2. Relevance to Public Health |pages=11–38 |chapter-url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp150-c2.pdf |url=https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=440&tid=77 |author=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) |location=Atlanta, GA| publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service| id=CAS# 7440-61-1 |date=February 2013}}</ref> Uranium is also a [[reproductive toxicant]].<ref name="Hindin2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1186/1476-069X-4-17 |last1=Hindin |first1=Rita|last2=Brugge |date=2005 |first2=D. |last3=Panikkar |first3=B. |title=Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective |journal=Environ Health |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=17 |pmid=16124873|pmc=1242351 |bibcode=2005EnvHe...4...17H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| author = Arfsten, D. P.
| author2 = Still, K. R.
| author3 = Ritchie, G. D.
| date = 2001
| title = A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development
| journal = Toxicology and Industrial Health
| volume = 17
| pages = 180–91
| doi = 10.1191/0748233701th111oa
| issue = 5–10
| pmid = 12539863| bibcode = 2001ToxIH..17..180A
| s2cid = 25310165
}}</ref> Radiological effects are generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of {{sup|238}}U decay, has a very short range, and will not penetrate skin. Alpha radiation from inhaled uranium has been demonstrated to cause lung cancer in exposed nuclear workers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Grellier |first1= James
|last2= Atkinson|first2= Will
|last3= Bérard|first3= Philippe
|last4= Bingham|first4= Derek
|last5= Birchall|first5= Alan
|last6= Blanchardon|first6= Eric
|last7= Bull|first7= Richard
|last8= Guseva Canu|first8= Irina
|last9= Challeton-de Vathaire|first9= Cécile
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|last11= Do|first11=Minh T
|last12= Engels|first12= Hilde
|last13= Figuerola|first13= Jordi
|last14= Foster|first14= Adrian
|last15= Holmstock|first15= Luc
|last16= Hurtgen|first16= Christian
|last17= Laurier|first17= Dominique
|last18= Puncher|first18= Matthew
|last19= Riddell |first19= Tony
|last20= Samson |first20= Eric
|last21= Thierry-Chef |first21= Isabelle
|last22= Tirmarche |first22= Margot
|last23= Vrijheid |first23= Martine
|last24= Cardis |first24= Elisabeth|date= 2017|title= Risk of lung cancer mortality in nuclear workers from internal exposure to alpha particle-emitting radionuclides.|journal= Epidemiology|volume= 28|issue= 5|pages= 675–684|doi= 10.1097/EDE.0000000000000684|pmc= 5540354 |pmid=28520643}}</ref> While the CDC has published one study that no human [[cancer]] has been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium,<ref name="ATSDR-PHS">{{cite web |url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp150-c1-b.pdf |title=Public Health Statement for Uranium |publisher=CDC |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> exposure to uranium and its decay products, especially [[radon]], is a significant health threat.<ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pgms/worknotify/fernald.html Radon Exposures to Workers at the Fernald Feed Materials Production Center]. Page reviewed: April 8, 2020. U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)</ref> Exposure to [[strontium-90]], [[iodine-131]], and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons.<ref>Chart of the Nuclides, US Atomic Energy Commission 1968</ref>

Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration of [[uranium hexafluoride]] has resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were associated with the generation of highly toxic hydrofluoric acid and [[uranyl fluoride]] rather than with uranium itself.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qDf3AO8nILoC&pg=PA1468 |page=1468 |title=Medical Toxicology |author=Dart, Richard C.|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-7817-2845-4}}</ref> Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium is [[pyrophoricity|pyrophoric]]; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature.<ref name="LANL" />

Uranium metal is commonly handled with gloves as a sufficient precaution.<ref name="DOH.WA">{{cite web |publisher=Washington State Department of Health, Office of Radiation Protection |url=http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/rp/factsheets/factsheets-htm/fs27uran.htm |title=Radiation Fact Sheets #27, Uranium (U) |date=2010 |access-date=23 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928164044/http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/rp/factsheets/factsheets-htm/fs27uran.htm |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Uranium concentrate is handled and contained so as to ensure that people do not inhale or ingest it.<ref name="DOH.WA" />