Editing Staphylococcus aureus (section)

==Research==
As of 2024, no approved [[vaccine]] exists against ''S. aureus''. Early [[clinical trial]]s have been conducted for several vaccines candidates such as Nabi's StaphVax and PentaStaph, [[Intercell|Intercell's]] / [[Merck & Co.|Merck's]] V710, VRi's SA75, and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rff.org/files/sharepoint/WorkImages/Download/ETC-07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308211758/http://www.rff.org/files/sharepoint/WorkImages/Download/ETC-07.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-08 |url-status=live |title=A Shot Against MRSA?|publisher=Resources for the Future |date=20 April 2009 |access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref>

While some of these vaccines candidates have shown immune responses, others aggravated an infection by ''S. aureus''. To date, none of these candidates provides protection against a ''S. aureus'' infection. The development of Nabi's StaphVax was stopped in 2005 after phase III trials failed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.formatex.info/microbiology4/vol3/1911-1925.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122163352/http://www.formatex.info/microbiology4/vol3/1911-1925.pdf |archive-date=2015-11-22 |url-status=live |title=Strengthening the immune system as an antimicrobial strategy against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' infections |publisher=FORMATEX RESEARCH CENTER |date=11 December 2013 |access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref> Intercell's first V710 vaccine variant was terminated during phase II/III after higher mortality and morbidity were observed among patients who developed ''S. aureus'' infection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news-medical.net/news/20110608/Intercell-Merck-terminate-V710-Phase-IIIII-trial-against-S-aureus-infection.aspx |title=Intercell, Merck terminate V710 Phase II/III trial against S. aureus infection|publisher=Merck & Co. |date=8 June 2011 |access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref>

Nabi's enhanced ''S. aureus'' vaccines candidate PentaStaph was sold in 2011 to GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals S.A.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://globenewswire.com/news-release/2011/04/27/445328/219830/en/Nabi-Biopharmaceuticals-Completes-Final-PentaStaph-TM-Milestone.html |title=Nabi Biopharmaceuticals Completes Final PentaStaph(TM) Milestone |publisher=GLOBE NEWSWIRE |date=27 April 2011 |access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref> The current status of PentaStaph is unclear. A [[World Health Organization|WHO]] document indicates that PentaStaph failed in the phase III trial stage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/immunization/research/forums_and_initiatives/4_OSchneewind_Staphylococcal_Vaccines_gvirf16.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910053922/http://www.who.int/immunization/research/forums_and_initiatives/4_OSchneewind_Staphylococcal_Vaccines_gvirf16.pdf |archive-date=2016-09-10 |url-status=live |title=Vaccines to prevent antibiotic-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA)infections |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=11 May 2017}}</ref>

In 2010, [[GlaxoSmithKline]] started a [[Clinical trial#Phases|phase 1]] [[blinded experiment|blind study]] to evaluate its GSK2392103A vaccine.<ref name = "NCT01160172">{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT01160172|A Study to Evaluate the Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of GSK Biologicals' Staphylococcal Investigational Vaccine in Healthy Adults}}</ref> As of 2016, this vaccine is no longer under active development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nitag-resource.org/uploads/media/default/0001/03/041907310233c1d351cdc87ec952f56bd3abbed5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011140244/http://www.nitag-resource.org/uploads/media/default/0001/03/041907310233c1d351cdc87ec952f56bd3abbed5.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-11 |url-status=live |title=Status of vaccine research and development of vaccines for ''Staphylococcus aureus'' |publisher=Elsevier |date=19 April 2016 |access-date=10 October 2016}}</ref>

[[Pfizer|Pfizer's]] ''S. aureus'' four-antigen vaccine SA4Ag was granted [[Fast track (FDA)|fast track designation]] by the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] <!-- (FDA) --> in February 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer_begins_phase_2b_study_of_its_investigational_multi_antigen_staphylococcus_aureus_vaccine_in_adults_undergoing_elective_spinal_fusion_surgery |title=Pfizer Begins Phase 2b Study of Its Investigational Multi-antigen ''Staphylococcus aureus'' Vaccine in Adults Undergoing Elective Spinal Fusion Surgery |publisher=Pfizer Inc. |date=7 July 2015 |access-date=24 February 2016}}</ref> In 2015, Pfizer has commenced a phase 2b trial regarding the SA4Ag vaccine.<ref name = "NCT02388165">{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT02388165|Safety and Efficacy of SA4Ag Vaccine in Adults Having Elective Posterior Instrumented Lumbar Spinal Fusion Procedure (STRIVE)}}</ref> Phase 1 results published in February 2017 showed a very robust and secure immunogenicity of SA4Ag.<ref name="pmid28143674">{{cite journal | vauthors = Begier E, Seiden DJ, Patton M, Zito E, Severs J, Cooper D, Eiden J, Gruber WC, Jansen KU, Anderson AS, Gurtman A | title = SA4Ag, a 4-antigen ''Staphylococcus aureus'' vaccine, rapidly induces high levels of bacteria-killing antibodies | journal = Vaccine | volume = 35 | issue = 8 | pages = 1132–9 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28143674 | doi = 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.01.024 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The vaccine underwent clinical trial until June 2019, with results published in September 2020, that did not demonstrate a significant reduction in Postoperative Bloodstream Infection after Surgery.<ref name = "NCT02388165" />

In 2015, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, a former division of [[Novartis]] and now part of GlaxoSmithKline, published promising pre-clinical results of their four-component ''Staphylococcus aureus'' vaccine, 4C-staph.<ref name="pmid26015481">{{cite journal | vauthors = Torre A, Bacconi M, Sammicheli C, Galletti B, Laera D, Fontana MR, Grandi G, De Gregorio E, Bagnoli F, Nuti S, Bertholet S, Bensi G | title = Four-component ''Staphylococcus aureus'' vaccine 4C-staph enhances Fcγ receptor expression in neutrophils and monocytes and mitigates S. aureus infection in neutropenic mice | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 83 | issue = 8 | pages = 3157–63 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26015481 | pmc = 4496606 | doi = 10.1128/IAI.00258-15 }}</ref>

In addition to vaccine development, research is being performed to develop alternative treatment options that are effective against antibiotic resistant strains including MRSA. Examples of alternative treatments are [[phage therapy]], [[antimicrobial peptides]] and [[Host-directed therapeutics|host-directed therapy]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scheper H, Wubbolts JM, Verhagen JA, de Visser AW, van der Wal RJ, Visser LG, de Boer MG, Nibbering PH | title = SAAP-148 Eradicates MRSA Persisters Within Mature Biofilm Models Simulating Prosthetic Joint Infection | journal = Frontiers in Microbiology | volume = 12 | pages = 625952 | date = 2021-01-29 | pmid = 33584628 | pmc = 7879538 | doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2021.625952 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = van den Biggelaar RH, Walburg KV, van den Eeden SJ, van Doorn CL, Meiler E, de Ries AS, Meijer AH, Ottenhoff TH, Saris A | title = Identification of kinase modulators as host-directed therapeutics against intracellular methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' | journal = Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology | volume = 14 | pages = 1367938 | date = 2024 | pmid = 38590439 | pmc = 10999543 | doi = 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1367938 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Standard strains===
A number of standard strains of ''S. aureus'' (called "type cultures") are used in research and in laboratory testing, such as:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;"
|+ Standard strains of ''Staphylococcus aureus''
|-
! Name
! NCTC
! ATCC
! Year of deposit
! Comment
|-
| Oxford H || 6571 || 9144 || 1943 || Standard strain used for testing penicillin potency and by which the penicillin unit was originally defined.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mayr-Harting A | title = The acquisition of penicillin resistance by ''Staphylococcus aureus'', strain Oxford | journal = Journal of General Microbiology | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–21 | date = August 1955 | pmid = 13252206 | doi = 10.1099/00221287-13-1-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kearns AM, Ganner M, Holmes A | title = The 'Oxford Staphylococcus': a note of caution | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 58 | issue = 2 | pages = 480–1 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16735421 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkl230 }}</ref>
|-
| Rosenbach || 12973 || 29213 || 1884 || Standard strain for EUCAST antimicrobial resistance testing.<ref>{{cite book | author = EUCAST | title = Routine and extended internal quality control for MIC determination and disk diffusion as recommended by EUCAST: version 10.0 | url = https://eucast.org/ast_of_bacteria/quality_control/ | location = Växjö, Sweden | publisher = European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | date = 2020-01-01 | page = 9 }}</ref>
|}