Editing Reduplication (section)

===Austronesian===
[[Austronesian languages]] are known for their extensive use of reduplication in both nouns and verbs.{{sfn|Lande|2003}}

====Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian)====
In the Malay language, reduplication is a semi-productive process. It is used for expression of various grammatical functions (such as verbal aspect) and it is part in a number of complex morphological models. Simple reduplication of nouns and pronouns can express at least three meanings:

#Diversity or non-exhaustive plurality:
##''Burung-burung itu juga diekspor ke luar negeri'' = "All those birds are also exported out of the country".
#Conceptual similarity:
##''langit-langit'' = "ceiling; palate; etc." (''langit'' = "sky")
##''jari-jari'' = "spoke; bar; radius; etc." (''jari'' = "finger" etc.)
#Pragmatic accentuation:
##''Saya bukan anak-anak lagi!'' "I am not a child anymore!" (''anak'' = "child")

Reduplication of an adjective can express different things:
*Adverbialisation: ''Jangan bicara keras-keras!'' = "Don't speak loudly!" (''keras'' = hard)
*Plurality of the corresponding noun: ''Rumah di sini besar-besar'' = "The houses here are big" (''besar'' = "big").

Reduplication of a verb can express various things:
*Simple reduplication:
**Pragmatic accentuation: ''Kenapa orang tidak datang-datang?'' = "Why aren't people coming?"
*Reduplication with ''me-'' prefixation, depending on the position of the prefix ''me-'':
**Repetition or continuation of the action: ''Orang itu memukul-mukul anaknya'': "That man continuously beat his child";
**Reciprocity: ''Kedua-dua orang itu pukul-memukul'' = "Those two men would beat each other".
Notice that in the first case, the nasalisation of the initial consonant (whereby /p/ becomes /m/) is repeated, while in the second case, it only applies in the repeated word.

====Māori====
The [[Māori language]] ([[New Zealand]]) uses reduplication in a number of ways.{{sfn|Biggs|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7PZPA_JjCrQC&pg=PA137 137]}}

Reduplication can convey a simple plural meaning, for instance ''wahine'' "woman", ''waahine'' "women", ''tangata'' "person", ''taangata'' "people". Biggs calls this "infixed reduplication". It occurs in a small subset of "people" words in most Polynesian languages.

Reduplication can convey emphasis or repetition, for example ''mate'' "die", ''matemate'' "die in numbers"; and de-emphasis, for example ''wera'' "hot" and ''werawera'' "warm".

Reduplication can also extend the meaning of a word; for instance ''paki'' "pat" becomes ''papaki'' "slap or clap once" and ''pakipaki'' "applaud"; ''kimo'' "blink" becomes ''kikimo'' "close eyes firmly". Nouns can also be formed this way – a good example are names of native New Zealand plants given in memory of tropical plants known by early arriving Polynesian settlers that they approximately resemble: ''[[kohekohe]]'' is named because its stems resemble the ''[[Schizostachyum glaucifolium|kohe]]'' bamboo (hence "bamboo-ish") in tropical islands,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.temarareo.org/TMR-Kohekohe.html|title=Proto-Polynesian Etymologies: Kohe, Kohekohe|website=Te Māra Reo|date=2023|publisher=Benson Family Trust}}</ref> same for several ferns known as ''piupiu'' (''[[Parablechnum]]'' and others in their family) named after their fronds' shape resembling those of the ''piu'' or ''[[Pritchardia pacifica]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Proto-Polynesian Etymologies: Piu |url=https://www.temarareo.org/PPN-Piu.html |work=ibid.}}</ref>

==== Mortlockese ====
The [[Mortlockese language]] is a Micronesian language spoken primarily on the [[Mortlock Islands (disambiguation)|Mortlock Islands]]. In the Mortlockese language, reduplication is used to show a habitual or imperfective aspect. For example, /jææjæ/ means "to use something" while the word /jæjjææjæ/ means "to use something habitually or repeatedly".{{sfn|Odango|2015}} Reduplication is also used in the Mortlockese Language to show extremity or extreme measures. One example of this can be seen in /ŋiimw alɛɛtɛj/ which means "hate him, her, or it". To mean "really hate him, her, or it," the phrase changes to /ŋii~mw al~mw alɛɛtɛj/.{{sfn|Odango|2015}}

====Pingelapese====
[[Pingelapese language|Pingelapese]] is a Micronesian language spoken on the Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. Pingelapese utilizes both duplication and triplication of a verb or part of a verb to express that something is happening for certain duration of time. No reduplication means that something happens. A reduplicated verb means that something IS happening, and a triplication means that something is STILL happening.  For example, ''saeng'' means 'to cry' in Pingelapese. When reduplicated and triplicated, the duration of this verb is changed:
* ''saeng'' – cries
* ''saeng-saeng'' – is crying
* ''saeng-saeng-saeng'' – is still crying

Few languages employ triplication in their language. In Micronesia, Pingelapese is one of only two languages that uses triplication, the other being Mokilese. Reduplication and triplication are not to be confused with tense. In order to make a phrase past, present, or future tense, a temporal phrase must be used.{{sfn|Hattori|2012|pp=34–35}}

==== Rapa ====
[[Rapa language|Rapa]] is the French Polynesian language of the island of [[Rapa Iti]].{{sfn|Walworth|2015}} In terms of reduplication, the indigenous language known as Old Rapa uses reduplication consistent to other Polynesian languages. Reduplication of Old Rapa occurs in four ways: full, rightward, leftward, and medial. Full and rightward are generally more frequently used as opposed to the leftward and medial. Leftward and medial only occur as CV reduplication and partial leftward and medial usually denote emphasis.{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

Example of reduplication forms:{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Base form
!Reduplicated form
|-
!Full reduplication
|
* kini 'pinch'
* kati 'bite'
|
* kini'''kini''' 'pinch skin'
* kati'''kati''' 'nibble'
|-
!Rightward reduplication
|
* māringi 'pour'
* taka'uri 'go backward'
* pātī 'bounce'
* ngaru 'wave'
|
* māringi'''ringi''' 'pour continuously'
* taka'uri'''<nowiki/>'uri''' 'roll back and forth'
* pātī'''tī''' 'splash (of raindrops)'
* ngaru'''ru''' 'sea sick'
|-
!Leftward reduplication
|
* komo 'sleep'
* kume 'drag'
|
* '''ko'''komo 'deep sleep'
* '''ku'''kume 'large, flat leaf seaweed'
|-
!Medial reduplication
|
* maitaki 'good; well'
|
* mai'''ta'''taki 'excellent; very well'
|}

For the Rapa Language the implementation of reduplication has specific implications. The most evident of these are known as iterative, intensification, specification, diminutive, metaphorical, nominalizing, and adjectival.{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

Iterative:

* naku 'come, go' → nakunaku 'pass by frequently'
* ipuni 'hide' → ipunipuni 'hide and seek'

Intensification:

* mare 'cough' → maremare 'cough forcefully'
* roa 'much' → roroa 'very much'
* maki 'sick' → makimaki 'really sick'

Specification:

* kini 'to pinch' → kinikini 'pinch skin'

Diminutive:

* paki 'slap, strike' → pakipaki 'clap'
* kati 'bite' → katikati 'nibble'

Metaphorical (typically comparing an animal action with a human action):{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

* kapa 'mime with hands' → kapakapa 'flap wings (a bird)'
* mākuru 'detach oneself' → mākurukuru 'shed or molt'
* taŋi 'Yell' → taŋitaŋi 'chirp (a bird)'

Nominalizing:

* para 'finished' → parapara 'leftovers'
* Panga'a 'divide' → panaga'anga'a 'a break, a divide'

Adjectival:

* repo 'dirt, earth' → reporepo 'dirty'
* pake 'sun' → pakepake 'shining, bright'

====Tagalog====
[[Philippine languages]] are characterized as having the most productive use of reduplication, especially in [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (the basis of the [[Filipino language]]). Reduplication in Tagalog is complex. It can be roughly divided into six types:<ref name="Lopez">{{cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Cecilio |title=Reduplication in Tagalog |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |date=1950 |volume=Deel 106 |issue=2de Afl |pages=151–311 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90002477 |jstor=27859677 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Blake">{{cite journal |last1=Blake |first1=Frank R. |title=Reduplication in Tagalog |journal=The American Journal of Philology |date=1917 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=425–431 |doi=10.2307/288967|jstor=288967 }}</ref><ref name="Wan">{{cite web |last1=Wan |first1=Jin |title=Reduplication in Tagalog verbs |url=https://soologua.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/reduplication-in-tagalog-verbs.pdf |access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref>
#Monosyllabic; e.g. ''olol'' ("mad")
#Reduplication of the final syllable; e.g. ''himaymay'' ("separate meat from bones"), from ''himay'' (same meaning)
#Reduplication of the final syllable of a disyllabic word, where the added syllable is created from the first consonant of the first syllable and the last consonant of the second syllable; e.g. ''kaliskis'' ("[fish] scale"), from ''kalis'' ("to scrape")
#Reduplication of the initial syllable of the root; e.g. ''susulat'' ("will write"), from ''sulat'' ("to write")
#Full reduplication; e.g. ''araw-araw'' ("every day"), from ''araw'' ("day" or "sun")
#Combined partial and full reduplication; e.g. ''babalibaligtad'' ("turning around continually", "tumbling"), from ''baligtad'' ("reverse")

They can further be divided into "non-significant" (where its significance is not apparent) and "significant" reduplication. 1, 2, and 3 are always non-significant; while 5 and 6 are always significant. 4 can be non-significant when used for nouns (e.g. ''lalaki'', "man").<ref name="Lopez"/><ref name="Blake"/><ref name="Wan"/>

Full or partial reduplication among nouns and pronouns can indicate emphasis, intensity, plurality, or causation; as well as a diminutive, superlative, iterative, restrictive, or distributive force.<ref name="Lopez"/><ref name="Blake"/><ref name="Wan"/>

Adjectives and adverbs employ morphological reduplication for many different reasons such as number agreement when the adjective modifies a plural noun, intensification of the adjective or adverb, and sometimes because the prefix forces the adjective to have a reduplicated stem".{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}}

Number agreement for adjectives is entirely optional in Tagalog (e.g., a plural noun does not have to have a plural article marking it):{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}}
*"Ang magandang puno" "the beautiful tree".
*"Ang ma''ga''gandang puno" "the beautiful tree''s''".

The entire adjective is repeated for intensification of adjectives or adverbs:
*''Maganda''ng maganda ang kabayo "the horse is ''very'' pretty"

In verbs, reduplication of the root, prefix or infix is employed to convey different [[grammatical aspect]]s. In "Mag- verbs" reduplication of the root after the prefix "mag-" or "nag-" changes the verb from the infinitive form, or perfective aspect, respectively, to the contemplated or imperfective aspect.{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}} Thus:
*magluto inf/actor trigger-cook "to cook" or "cook!" ([[Imperative mood|imperative]])
*nagluto actor trigger-cook "cooked"
*nagluluto actor trigger-reduplication-cook "cook" (as in "I cook all the time) or "is/was cooking"
*magluluto inf/actor trigger-rdplc-cook (contemplated) "will cook"

For [[ergative verb]]s (frequently referred to as "object focus" verbs) reduplication of part the infix and the stem occur:
*lutuin cook-inf/object trigger-cook "to cook"
*niluto object trigger infix-cook (perf-cook) "cooked"
*niluluto object trigger infix-reduplication-cook "cook"/"is/was cooking"
*lulutuin rdp-cook-object trigger "will cook".{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}}

The complete superlative prefix pagka- demands reduplication of the first syllable of the adjective's stem:
*"Ang pagka''ga''gandang puno" "The ''most'' beautiful tree (''and there are none more beautiful anywhere'')"

====Wuvulu-Aua====
Reduplication is not a productive noun derivation process in [[Wuvulu-Aua language|Wuvulu-Aua]] as it is in other Austronesian languages. Some nouns exhibit reduplication, though they are considered to be fossilized.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=47}}

Verb roots can undergo whole or partial reduplication to mark aspect. Actions that are continuous are indicated by a reduplicated initial syllable. A whole reduplication can also be used to indicate imperfective aspect.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=100}}
* ''roni'' "to hurry"
* ''roroni'' "hurrying"
* ''rawani'' "good"
* ''rarawani'' "good" (continuous)
* ''ware'' "talk"
* ''wareware'' "talked" (durative)

The onomatopoeia in Wuvulu language also uses reduplication to describe the sound. These onomatopoeic words can be used as alienable nouns.
* "baʔa" or "baʔabaʔa" is a word for the sound of knocking.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=46}}