Editing Racism (section)

===19th century===
[[File:Advert for Pears' Soap Wellcome L0030380.jpg|thumb|Advertisement for [[Pears (soap)|Pears' Soap]] Caption reads, "Matchless for the complexion..." Illustration of 'before and after' use of soap by black child in the bath; soap washes off his dark complexion.]]

While 19th-century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism,<ref>Academic Press (2000). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pvHRNNk9hHEC&q=racism+and+ethnic+nationalism+in+the+19th+century%2C%2F&pg=PA435 " Encyclopedia of Nationalism, Two-Volume Set, Volume 2"].</ref> leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse that identified the "race" with the "[[Volk (German word)|folk]]", leading to such movements as [[pan-Germanism]], [[pan-Turkism]], [[pan-Arabism]], and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought to be the consequence of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race", and they also transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g., Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxists|Marxism]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured positions: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concept of "blood [[heredity]]", prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.

Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist ideology (''popular racism'') which developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories and the atrocities that sometimes accompanied them (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]] of 1904–1907 or the [[Armenian genocide]] of 1915–1917). [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem, ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899), is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the [[Western culture|European culture]] over the rest of the world, though it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist beliefs.

[[File:Scientific racism irish.jpg|thumb|left|A late-19th-century illustration from ''Ireland from One or Two Neglected Points of View'' by H. Strickland Constable shows an alleged similarity between "[[Irish Iberian]]" and "Negro" features in contrast to the "higher" "Anglo-Teutonic".]]
However, during the 19th century, Western European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the [[Arab slave trade]] in Africa,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server?show=nav.5938&outputFormat=print |title=Royal Navy and the Slave Trade : Battles : History |publisher=Royal-navy.mod.uk |access-date=23 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510210721/http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server?show=nav.5938&outputFormat=print |archive-date=10 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as in the suppression of the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] in West Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/visit_see_victory_cfexhibition_infosheet.htm |title=Chasing Freedom Exhibition: the Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade |publisher=Royalnavalmuseum.org |date=21 November 2006 |access-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210021701/http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/visit_see_victory_cfexhibition_infosheet.htm |archive-date=10 December 2009}}</ref> Some Europeans during the time period objected to injustices that occurred in some colonies and lobbied on behalf of [[aboriginal peoples]]. Thus, when the [[Saartjie Baartman|Hottentot Venus]] was displayed in England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]], which was owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

Examples of racial theories used include the creation of the [[Hamites|Hamitic theory]] during the [[European exploration of Africa]]. The term ''Hamite'' was applied to different populations within North Africa, mainly comprising Ethiopians, [[Demographics of Eritrea|Eritreans]], [[Somali people|Somalis]], [[Berber people|Berbers]], and the ancient Egyptians. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.<ref>Ronald James Harrison, ''Africa and the Islands'', (Wiley: 1965), p. 58</ref><ref>Dorothy Dodge, ''African Politics in Perspective'', (Van Nostrand: 1966), p. 11</ref><ref>Michael Senior, ''Tropical Lands: a human geography'', (Longman: 1979), p. 59</ref> Europeans considered Hamites to be more civilized than [[Black people|Sub-Saharan Africans]], and more akin to themselves and [[Semitic peoples]].<ref>A.H.M. Jones, [[Elizabeth Monroe (historian)|Elizabeth Monroe]], ''History of Abyssinia'', (Kessinger Publishing: 2003), p. 25</ref> In the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the [[Caucasian race]], along with the [[Aryan race|Indo-Europeans]], [[Semitic people|Semites]], and the [[Mediterranean race|Mediterraneans]].

However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to [[miscegenation|interbreeding]] with [[Negroe]]s. In the mid-20th century, the German scholar [[Carl Meinhof]] (1857–1944) claimed that the [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] race was formed by a merger of [[Hamitic]] and [[Negroid|Negro]] races. The Hottentots ([[Nama people|Nama]] or [[Khoi]]) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and [[Bushmen]] (San) races—both being termed nowadays as [[Khoisan]] peoples.

[[File:Freedman's bureau.jpg|thumb|One in a series of posters attacking [[Radical Republicans]] on the issue of black suffrage, issued during the [[Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, 1866|Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1866]]]]
In the United States in the early 19th century, the [[American Colonization Society]] was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 |title=Background on conflict in Liberia |publisher=Fcnl.org |date=30 July 2003 |access-date=26 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108042234/http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 |archive-date=8 January 2011}}</ref> The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder [[Henry Clay]] stating that "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".<ref>Maggie Montesinos Sale (1997). ''The Slumbering Volcano: American Slave Ship Revolts and the Production of Rebellious Masculinity''. p. 264. [[Duke University Press]], 1997</ref> Racism spread throughout the New World in the late 19th century and early 20th century. [[Whitecapping]], which started in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. In the US, during the 1860s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. In one of these racist posters (see above), a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood. Accompanying labels are: "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread", and "The white man must work to keep his children and pay his taxes." The black man wonders, "Whar is de use for me to work as long as dey make dese appropriations." Above in a cloud is an image of the "Freedman's Bureau! Negro Estimate of Freedom!" The bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the U.S. Capitol and is inscribed "Freedom and No Work". Its columns and walls are labeled, "Candy", "Rum, Gin, Whiskey", "Sugar Plums", "Indolence", "White Women", "Apathy", "White Sugar", "Idleness", and so on.

On 5 June 1873, Sir [[Francis Galton]], distinguished English explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a letter to ''[[The Times]]'':

{{blockquote|1=My proposal is to make the encouragement of [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] settlements of Africa a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race&nbsp;... I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law.<ref>{{cite news|last=Galton |first=Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKZUAAAAcAAJ&q=%22Africa+for+the+Chinese%22&pg=PA377 |title=Africa for the Chinese |work=The London and China Telegraph |date=9 June 1873 |volume=15 |number=510 |location=London}}</ref>}}