Editing Peace (section)

==Theories==
{{see also|Peace and conflict studies#Conceptions of peace}}
Many different theories of "peace" exist in the world of [[peace studies]], which involves the study of de-escalation, conflict transformation, disarmament, and cessation of violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.einaudi.cornell.edu/peaceprogram/|url-status=dead|title=Peace Studies Program|website=Cornell University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022225012/http://einaudi.cornell.edu/PeaceProgram/ |archive-date=22 October 2007 }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2023}} The definition of "peace" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study.

===Balance of power===
{{Main|Balance of power (international relations)}}
The classical "realist" position is that the key to promoting order between states, and so of increasing the chances of peace, is the maintenance of a [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] between states – a situation where no state is so dominant that it can "lay down the law to the rest". Exponents of this view have included [[Metternich]], [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]], [[Hans Morgenthau]], and [[Henry Kissinger]]. A related approach – more in the tradition of [[Hugo Grotius]] than [[Thomas Hobbes]] – was articulated by the so-called "[[English school of international relations theory]]" such as [[Martin Wight]] in his book ''Power Politics'' (1946, 1978) and [[Hedley Bull]] in ''The Anarchical Society'' (1977).

As the maintenance of a balance of power could in some circumstances require a willingness to go to war, some critics saw the idea of a balance of power as promoting war rather than promoting peace. This was a radical critique of those supporters of the Allied and Associated Powers who justified entry into World War I on the grounds that it was necessary to preserve the balance of power in Europe from a German bid for [[hegemony]].

In the second half of the 20th century, and especially during the [[Cold War]], a particular form of balance of power – mutual nuclear deterrence – emerged as a widely held doctrine on the key to peace between the great powers. Critics argued that the development of nuclear stockpiles increased the chances of war rather than peace, and that the "nuclear umbrella" made it "safe" for smaller wars (e.g. the [[Vietnam War]] and the Soviet invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]] to end the [[Prague Spring]]), so making such wars more likely.

===Appeasement and deterrence===
[[Appeasement]] is a strategy to achieve peace by making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive [[power (international relations)|power]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/appeasement.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404054019/http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/appeasement.html|url-status=unfit|title=Appeasement - World War 2 on History|archive-date=4 April 2013|website=www.history.co.uk}}</ref> [[Deterrence theory|Deterrence]] is a strategy to achieve peace by using threats or limited force to [[coercive diplomacy|dissuade]] an actor from escalating conflict,<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Morgan|first=Patrick M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aNreAAAAMAAJ|title=Deterrence: A Conceptual Analysis|date=1977|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-8039-0819-2|pages=26–30|language=en|access-date=2021-08-30|archive-date=2024-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224051622/https://books.google.com/books?id=aNreAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> typically because the prospective attacker believes that the probability of success is low and the costs of attack are high.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mearsheimer|first=John J.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1rv61v2|title=Conventional Deterrence|date=1983|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-1-5017-1325-5|pages=23|jstor=10.7591/j.ctt1rv61v2|language=en|access-date=2021-09-05|archive-date=2023-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405171209/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1rv61v2|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson Meet with Organizers of "March on Washington".jpg|thumb|Civil rights leaders (including [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]) meeting with President John F. Kennedy during the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|1963 March on Washington]] is an example of the "[[speaking truth to power]]" peace tactic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dubrin |first=Doug |title=The March on Washington and Its Impact |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/history/dream2_8-20.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109190937/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/history/dream2_8-20.html |archive-date=2013-01-09 |access-date=2020-08-29 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Alan |date=2013-08-28 |title=An important goal of the 1963 March on Washington remains unfulfilled |url=https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/civil-rights/319011--an-important-goal-of-the-1963-march-on-washington-remains-unfulfilled |access-date=2020-08-29 |website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |language=en}}</ref>]]

=== Speaking truth to power ===
{{main|Speaking truth to power}}
Speaking truth to power is a [[Nonviolence|non-violent]] political tactic, employed by [[dissidents]] against the [[received wisdom]] or [[propaganda]] of governments they regard as oppressive, [[authoritarian]] or an [[ideocracy]]. Practitioners who have campaigned for a more just and truthful world have included [[Apollonius of Tyana]], [[Vaclav Havel]],<ref>Havel, Václav; et al. (1985). Keane, John, ed. The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the state in central-eastern Europe. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. {{ISBN|0-87332-761-6}}.</ref> [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Archbishop Desmond Tutu]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Bacha Khan]], and the [[14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]].<ref>Nan Richardson (ed), [[Kerry Kennedy]] and [[Eddie Adams (photographer)|Eddie Adams]], 'Speak Truth to Power', Umbrage, 2003, introduction.</ref>

The phrase originated with a pamphlet, ''[[American Friends Service Committee#History|Speak Truth to Power: a Quaker Search for an Alternative to Violence]]'', published by the [[American Friends Service Committee]] in 1955. A contributor of the pamphlet's contents was civil rights activist [[Bayard Rustin]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/speaktruthtopowe00amer/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Speak truth to power A Quaker search for an alternative to violence |date=1955 |publisher=American Friends Service Committee |access-date=25 April 2024}}</ref><ref>According to Fea (2017), 'Rustin and his co-authors expunged Rustin’s name from the pamphlet because of his arrest on charges of committing a homosexual act in 1953.'[https://currentpub.com/2017/08/26/the-history-of-the-phrase-speak-truth-to-power/ The History of the Phrase “Speak Truth to Power”]</ref>

=== Free trade and interdependence ===
{{main|Doux commerce|Peace economics}}
It was a central tenet of [[classical liberalism]], for example among English liberal thinkers of the late 19th and early 20th century, that free trade promoted peace. For example, the Cambridge economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] (1883–1946) said that he was "brought up" on this idea and held it unquestioned until at least the 1920s.<ref>Quoted from [[Donald Markwell]], ''[[John Maynard Keynes]] and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006, chapter 2.</ref> During the [[economic globalization]] in the decades leading up to World War I, writers such as [[Norman Angell]] argued that the growth of economic interdependence between the great powers made war between them futile and therefore unlikely. He made this argument in 1913. A year later Europe's economically interconnected states were embroiled in what would later become known as the First World War.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2019/01/14/the-end-of-the-great-illusion-norman-angell-and-the-founding-of-nato/index.html|title=NATO Review - the end of the "Great Illusion": Norman Angell and the founding of NATO|date=14 January 2019|access-date=10 November 2019|archive-date=10 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110170330/https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2019/01/14/the-end-of-the-great-illusion-norman-angell-and-the-founding-of-nato/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Democratic peace theory ===
{{main|Democratic peace theory}}
The [[democratic peace theory]] posits that democracy causes peace (between democracies) because of the accountability, institutions, values, and norms of democratic countries.<ref name="Hegre2014">{{cite journal |last1=Hegre |first1=Håvard |title=Democracy and armed conflict |journal=Journal of Peace Research |date=2014 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=159–172 |doi=10.1177/0022343313512852|s2cid=146428562 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Territorial peace theory ===
{{main|Territorial peace theory}}
The [[territorial peace theory]] posits that peace causes democracy because territorial wars between neighbor countries lead to authoritarian attitudes and disregard for democratic values.<ref>{{multiref2|
1={{cite journal |last1=Gibler |first1=Douglas M. |last2=Hutchison |first2=Marc L. |last3=Miller |first3=Steven V. |title=Individual identity attachments and international conflict: The importance of territorial threat |journal=Comparative Political Studies |date=2012 |volume=45 |issue=12 |pages=1655–1683|doi=10.1177/0010414012463899 |s2cid=154788507|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414012463899|url-access=subscription }}
|2={{cite journal |last1=Hutchison |first1=Marc L. |last2=Gibler |first2=Douglas M. |title=Political tolerance and territorial threat: A cross-national study |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=2007 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=128–142|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00499.x |s2cid=154653996|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00499.x|url-access=subscription}} }}</ref> 
This theory is supported by historical studies showing that countries rarely become democratic until after their borders have been settled by territorial peace with neighbor countries.<ref>{{multiref2|
1={{cite journal |last1=Gibler |first1=Douglas M. |last2=Owsiak |first2=Andrew |title=Democracy and the Settlement of International Borders, 1919-2001 |journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution |date=2017 |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=1847–1875|doi=10.1177/0022002717708599 |s2cid=158036471|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022002717708599|url-access=subscription }}
|2={{cite journal |last1=Owsiak |first1=Andrew P. |last2=Vasquez |first2=John A. |title=Peaceful dyads: A territorial perspective |journal=International Interactions |date=2021 |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=1040–1068 |doi=10.1080/03050629.2021.1962859|s2cid=239103213|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03050629.2021.1962859|url-access=subscription}} }}</ref>

=== War game ===
{{Main|Peace war game}}

The ''Peace and War Game'' is an approach in [[game theory]] to understand the relationship between peace and conflicts.

The [[iterated game]] hypotheses was originally used by academic groups and [[computer simulation]]s to study possible strategies of [[cooperation]] and [[aggression]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Shy|first=Oz|year=1996|title=Industrial Organization: Theory and Applications|url=https://archive.org/details/industrialorgani0000shyo|url-access=registration|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=The [[MIT]] Press}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2023}}

As peace makers became richer over time, it became clear that making war had greater costs than initially anticipated. One of the well studied [[strategy|strategies]] that acquired wealth more rapidly was based on [[Genghis Khan]], i.e. a constant aggressor making war continually to gain resources. This led, in contrast, to the development of what's known as the "provokable nice guy [[strategy]]", a peace-maker until attacked, improved upon merely to win by occasional forgiveness even when attacked. By adding the results of all pairwise games for each player, one sees that multiple players gain wealth cooperating with each other while bleeding a constantly aggressive player.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Nicholas R.|last=Miller|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4235437|url-access=subscription|title=Nice Strategies Finish First: A Review of ''The Evolution of Cooperation''|journal=[[Politics and the Life Sciences]]|volume=4|number=1|pages=86–91|publisher=[[Association for Politics and the Life Sciences]]|year=1985|doi=10.1017/S0730938400020852 |jstor=4235437 |s2cid=151520743 }}</ref>

=== Socialism and managed capitalism ===
Socialist, communist, and left-wing liberal writers of the 19th and 20th centuries (e.g., [[Lenin]], [[J.A. Hobson]], [[John Strachey (politician)|John Strachey]]) argued that capitalism caused war (e.g. through promoting imperial or other economic rivalries that lead to international conflict). This led some to argue that international socialism was the key to peace.

However, in response to such writers in the 1930s who argued that capitalism caused war, the economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] (1883–1946) argued that managed capitalism could promote peace. This involved international coordination of fiscal/monetary policies, an international monetary system that did not pit the interests of countries against each other, and a high degree of freedom of trade. These ideas underlay Keynes's work during World War II that led to the creation of the [[International Monetary Fund]] and the [[World Bank]] at [[Breton Woods, New Jersey|Bretton Woods]] in 1944, and later of the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (subsequently the [[World Trade Organization]]).<ref>{{cite book|first=Donald|last=Markwell|author-link=Donald Markwell|title=John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-829236-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/johnmaynardkeyne0000mark|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2023}}

===International organization and law===
One of the most influential theories of peace, especially since [[Woodrow Wilson]] led the creation of the [[League of Nations]] at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919, is that peace will be advanced if the intentional anarchy of states is replaced through the growth of [[international law]] promoted and enforced through international organizations such as the League of Nations, the [[United Nations]], and other functional international organizations. One of the most important early exponents of this view was [[Alfred Eckhart Zimmern]], for example in his 1936 book ''The League of Nations and the Rule of Law''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Alfred Eckhard|last= Zimmern|title=The League of Nations and the Rule of Law|publisher=Macmillan|year=1936|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.6948}}</ref>

=== Trans-national solidarity ===
[[File:Peace Steps on Social Movilitation.jpg|thumb|An [[Anti-war movement|anti-war activist]] with a homemade costume during an event in [[Colombia]], 2020|249x249px]]Many "idealist" thinkers about international relations – e.g. in the traditions of [[Kant]] and [[Karl Marx]] – have argued that the key to peace is the growth of some form of [[solidarity]] between peoples (or classes of people) spanning the lines of cleavage between nations or states that lead to war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hinsley|first=F.H.|author-link=Harry Hinsley|title=Power and the Pursuit of Peace|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1962|isbn=978-0-521-09448-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/powerpursuitofpe0000hins|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2023}}

One version of this is the idea of promoting international understanding between nations through the international mobility of students – an idea most powerfully advanced by [[Cecil Rhodes]] in the creation of the [[Rhodes Scholarships]], and his successors such as [[J. William Fulbright]].<ref>Discussed above. See, e.g., {{cite book|first=Donald|last=Markwell|author-link=Donald Markwell|title="Instincts to Lead": On Leadership, Peace, and Education|year=2013|publisher=Connor Court Publishing|location=Australia|isbn=978-1-922168-70-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/instinctstoleado0000mark|url-access=registration}}</ref>

Another theory is that peace can be developed among countries on the basis of active management of water resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://strategicforesight.com/publications.php#.WBm94-V94dU|title=Publications – Strategic Foresight Group, Think Tank, Global Policy, Global affairs research, Water Conflict studies, global policy strategies, strategic policy group, global future studies|website=strategicforesight.com|access-date=2 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101013118/http://strategicforesight.com/publications.php#.WBm94-V94dU|archive-date=1 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2023}}