Editing Paracel Islands (section)

== Territorial disputes ==
{{main|Territorial disputes in the South China Sea}}

=== Claims ===
The ownership of the islands remains hotly contested. The People's Republic of China (PRC) on mainland China, [[Vietnam]], and the Republic of China (ROC) on [[Taiwan]] all claim sovereignty. The PRC has controlled the entire archipelago since the [[Battle of the Paracel Islands]] in January 1974. In July 2012, China (PRC) established [[Sansha]], Hainan Province, as administering the area.<ref name="SanshaRectified">{{cite web |date=21 June 2012 |title=China sets up Sansha City to administer South China Sea islands |url=http://english.sina.com/china/2012/0621/479131.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225804/http://english.sina.com/china/2012/0621/479131.html |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |access-date=21 June 2012 |publisher=[[Sina Corp|Sina]]}}</ref> As of February 2017, 20 PRC outposts, including small harbours, built on [[Land reclamation|reclaimed land]] have been reported in the Paracels.<ref name="csisfeb2017">{{cite web |date=8 February 2017 |title=The Paracels: Beijing's Other South China Sea Buildup |url=https://amti.csis.org/paracels-beijings-other-buildup/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209064608/https://amti.csis.org/paracels-beijings-other-buildup/ |archive-date=February 9, 2017 |access-date=9 February 2017 |website=www.amti.csis.org |publisher=Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative}}</ref> The majority of the Paracel islands lie within 200 nm of both China's and Vietnam's geographic baselines under the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Mark J. Valencia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqOKE2aI5roC |title=Sharing the Resources of the South China Sea |author2=Jon M. Van Dyke |author3=Noel A. Ludwig |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8248-1881-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gqOKE2aI5roC&q=200+baseline 263] |access-date=October 31, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224054013/https://books.google.com/books?id=gqOKE2aI5roC |archive-date=February 24, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Historical perspectives ===
The nation states involved have differing historic perspectives as to sovereignty of the Paracel Islands with the Chinese claiming an interest since their discovery of the islands in the second century BC.<ref name="Chang1991403">{{Cite journal |last=Chang |first=Teh-Kuang |date=1991 |title=China's Claim of Sovereignty over Spratly and Paracel Islands: A Historical and Legal Perspective |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1644&context=jil |journal=Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law |volume=23 |pages=403 |access-date=July 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729141443/https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1644&context=jil |archive-date=July 29, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> A Vietnamese interest was crystallised in the view of one commentator by the planting of their flag in 1816.<ref name="Tkachenko2018">{{cite journal|first1 =Boris I.|last1 =Tkachenko|title =Territorial disputes in the South China Sea, Paracel Islands|url =https://msun.ru/dir/marinejournal/issues/2018v08no02/2018v08no02.pdf#page=56|page=60|issn =2306-8000|journal =Asia–Pacific Journal of Marine Science & Education|volume =8|issue =2|year =2018}}</ref> In 1836, the Vietnamese installed ten 5-meter steles with inscriptions that claimed the islands.<ref name="Tkachenko2018" /> 
 
Between 1881 and 1883 the German navy surveyed the islands continuously for three months each year without seeking the permission of either France or China. No protest was issued by either government and the German government published the results of the survey in 1885.{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=14}} After the [[Sino-French War|1884–1885 Sino-French War]], France officially gained control of [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]] as protectorates and fully established French colonial rule in Vietnam by signing a number of treaties with the Chinese and Vietnamese governments, including the [[Tientsin Accord]], [[Treaty of Huế (1884)]] and [[Treaty of Tientsin (1885)]], stipulating that China was to give up their claims of suzerainty over Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book|last =Chere|first=L.|year =1988|title =The Diplomacy of the Sino-French War (1883–1885): Global Complications of an Undeclared War|publisher = Notre Dame|pages =193–9|isbn =0940121069}}</ref>

In 1909 the Chinese sent an expedition to claim and map the islands in reaction to Japanese interest in exploiting the [[guano]] there.{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=14}}<ref>The South China Sea in the Age of European Decline, Stein Tonnesson, Modern Asian Studies, p. 8, February 2006</ref><ref>China's Claim to the Spratly Islands is Just a Mistake, Bill Hayton, CIMSEC, May 16, 2018. "This led to an expedition in May and June 1909 during which China formally claimed sovereignty over the Paracels for the first time."</ref> In the 1910s and 20s, the French accepted Chinese sovereignty of the Paracels. Around 1930 the French authorities began to push for a claim on behalf of [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] based on the protectorate's activities in the seventeenth century but were skeptical because Annam had done little to uphold its past claims.{{sfn|Tonnesson|2006}}

In 1932 France formally claimed the Paracel Islands and in 1933 the Spratly Islands.{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=12}} Initially there seems to have been confusion in China at the time as the Paracel Islands were not recognised as a separate geographical entity and formal protests did not immediately follow.{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=12}}<ref name="colonia.asia" /> China and Japan both protested. In 1933, France seized the Paracels and Spratlys, announced their annexation, formally included them in French Indochina, and built a couple of weather stations on them, but did not disturb the numerous Chinese fishermen it found there.{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=39}} In 1939 during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], Japan took over the Paracel Islands{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=11}} on the pretext of them being a Chinese territory and placed them under the administration of either [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]]{{sfn|Tonnesson|2006}}<ref>{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Japanese Occupation South China Sea Islands - 1937-1941 |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/SouthChinaSea_t.htm |website=combinedfleet.com}}</ref> or Hainan, then under its control.<ref name="Kivimäki 2002 10">{{harvnb|Kivimäki|2002|p=10}}</ref>

The Paracels and Spratlys were handed over to the Republic of China's control after the 1945 surrender of Japan,<ref name="Kivimäki 2002 10" /> since the Allied powers had assigned the Republic of China to accept the Japanese surrender in the area.<ref name="Severino 2011 74">{{harvnb|Severino|2011|p=74}}</ref> At the end of the war (Asian-Pacific Region), the ROC occupied the Paracels, Spratlys, and other islands in the South China Sea in October and November 1946.<ref name="Kivimäki 2002 11" /> During the San Francisco Peace Conference of 1951, the USSR motioned for the Paracels and the Spratlys to be awarded to China, but the motion was rejected by a vote of 46 to 3.<ref>US Department of State Publication, Record of Proceedings of the Conference for the Conclusion and Signature of the Treaty of Peace with Japan, 119, 292 (1951).</ref> In the Geneva accord of 1954, Japan formally renounced all of its claims to, inter alia, the South China Sea islands that it had occupied during World War II.<ref>Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore, University of Virginia, "Security flashpoints: oil, islands, sea access and military confrontation", p174-185]</ref> After World War II ended, the Republic of China was consistently the "most active claimant" of the islands. It garrisoned Woody Island, the main island of the Amphitrite group, and posted Chinese flags and markers on it. France tried, but failed, to force the ROC to leave,<ref name="Kivimäki 2002 11">{{harvnb|Kivimäki|2002|p=11}}</ref> although the weather station on Prattle Island continued to be operated by French Indochina.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-03 |title=Paracel Islands {{!}} Map, History, & Location {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Paracel-Islands |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The aim of the ROC was to block French claims.<ref>"Spratly Islands - reefs, shoals, atolls, and islets, South China Sea". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on May 20, 2015. Retrieved May 16, 2014.]</ref> In December 1947, the ROC drew up a map showing its eleven-dotted line U-shaped claim to the entire South China Sea, including the Spratly and Paracel Islands as Chinese territory.<ref name="Severino 2011 76">{{harvnb|Severino|2011|p=76}}</ref>

After the communists gained control of China in 1949 after [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|victory]] in the [[Chinese Civil War]], they occupied Woody Island.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJlADwAAQBAJ&q=After+the+communists+gained+control+of+China+in+1949,+they+occupied+Woody+Island&pg=PT85|title=Great Powers, Grand Strategies: The New Game in the South China Sea|last=Corr|first=Anders|date=2018-01-15|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=9781682472361|language=en}}</ref> By 1955 [[South Vietnam]] had taken possession of the Crescent Group.<ref>{{harvnb|Kivimäki|2002|p=13}}</ref> North Vietnam's prime minister [[Phạm Văn Đồng]] recognized Chinese sovereignty over the Paracels in 1958. After winning the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam war]], North Vietnam retracted its recognition, saying it had done so to receive aid from China in fighting the Americans,<ref>{{Harvnb|Morley|Nishihara|1997|pp=126–127}}</ref> according to Pham's discussion in June 1977 with China's [[Li Xiannian|Li Xiannan]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Frances Yaping |title=The Art of State Persuasion: China's Strategic Use of Media in Interstate Disputes |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2024 |isbn=9780197757512 |page= |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197757505.001.0001}}</ref>{{Rp|page=98}}

After the [[Battle of the Paracel Islands]] in January 1974, the People's Republic of China expelled the Vietnamese from the Crescent Group and took full control of the Paracels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vietnam |url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/vietnam/ |access-date=2021-01-14 |website=The National Bureau of Asian Research (NBR) |language=en}}</ref> In 1976 the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) tried to persuade Beijing to acknowledge Vietnam's sovereignty over the Spratly Islands to the south, offering in return to recognize China's claim over the Paracel Islands. However, when this effort failed, Vietnam's government, now under CPV control, asserted its claim over both archipelagos.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vietnam's Paradox: Commemorating the Battle of the Paracels |url=https://thediplomat.com/2024/01/vietnams-paradox-commemorating-the-battle-of-the-paracels/ |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Vietnam ====

===== 15th–17th centuries =====
[[File: Partie de la Cochichine atlas.jpg|thumb|Atlas produced by Belgian geographer Philippe Vandermaelen (1795–1869), published in 1827 in Belgium, showing Paracel Islands is a part of Vietnam]]
* 1460–1497, under the reign of Emperor [[Lê Thánh Tông]] of the [[Lê dynasty]] (1428–1789), the Vietnamese began conducting commercial activities on and around Hoàng Sa, including harvesting abundant sea-products and conducting salvage operations on shipwrecks.<ref name="TSSĐ"/>
* In 1634, during year fifth of [[Lê Thần Tông|Emperor Đức Long]] of Vietnam (1629–1635), the ship Grootebroek of the [[Dutch East India Company]] sank in the vicinity of the Paracel archipelago. Using a small boat, captain Huijch Jansen and 12 sailors managed to reach [[Cochinchina|Đàng Trong]], territory of Lord [[Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên]] (1613–1635), to seek rescue for other castaways still on the islands.<ref>W.J.M. Buch, [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/befeo_0336-1519_1936_num_36_1_3662?_Prescripts_Search_isPortletOuvrage=false La Compagnie des Indes Néerlandaises et l'Indochine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117171422/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/befeo_0336-1519_1936_num_36_1_3662?_Prescripts_Search_isPortletOuvrage=false |date=January 17, 2012 }}, pp.134–135, 1936, Persee. Retrieved May 4, 2009. (in French)</ref>
* 1680–1705, Lord [[Trịnh Căn]] of [[Tonkin]] instructed [[Đỗ Bá Công Đạo]] to publish ''Thiên Nam tứ chí lộ đồ'' (天南四至路圖), an encyclopedia consisting of four series of maps that detail routes from Thăng Long{{clarify|reason=initial mention -- means nothing without clarification inline or by hyperlink|date=July 2022}}, capital of Đại Việt{{clarify|reason=initial mention -- means nothing without clarification inline or by hyperlink|date=July 2022}}, to other countries in [[Southeast Asia]]. Part of this work was based on the [[Hồng Đức]] Atlas ([[Hồng Đức Bản Đồ]]) developed during the time of Emperor [[Lê Thánh Tông]] (1460–1497). This encyclopedia was considered one of the oldest and rarely preserved Vietnamese documents regarding the islands. The volume "Đường từ phủ Phụng Thiên đến Chiêm Thành" (The Route to [[Champa]] from Phụng Thiên Province), remarkably described the archipelago with maps. For instance, a statement found in the volume read "In the middle of the sea, there is a long sandbank called Bãi Cát Vàng, which is approximately 400-league long and 20-league wide rising up above the sea." Bãi Cát Vàng means Hoàng Sa, Golden Sandbank.<ref name="TSSĐ"/><ref>Đỗ Bá Công Đạo, ''Toàn Tập Thiên Nam Tứ Chí Lộ Đồ Thư'', Translated into modern Vietnamese from Chinese by Buu Cam, Hồng Đức Bản Đồ, Saigon, 1962.</ref>
* In the 18th century, under instructions of the [[Nguyễn lords]], the salvage operations officially started with the formation of Hoàng Sa and Bắc Hải Companies. Their responsibility was to carry out the mission at Hoàng Sa (Golden Sandbank) and Vạn Lý Trường Sa (Ten-thousand-league Long Sandbank) respectively. This effort was continued thereafter with successive establishments of other naval task units in accordance with strategic policies toward the two archipelagos under the Nguyễn dynasty. Noticeably, a number of naval battles between the Dutch fleet and the Nguyễn Royal Navy occurred in 1643 and 1644. The Hoàng Sa naval task unit consisted of 70 men recruited from An Vĩnh and An Hải villages of [[Quảng Ngãi]], while the majority of members of the Bắc Hải Company came from [[Bình Thuận Province|Bình Thuận province]].<ref name="TSSĐ"/><ref name="PHC"/><ref name="PBTL">Lê Quý Đôn, The Encyclopedia of [[Thuận Hóa]] and [[Quảng Nam]] ''Phủ Biên Tập Lục'', 1776. Translated into modern Vietnamese from Chinese by Le Xuan Giao, Saigon, 1972.</ref><ref name="MCG">Monique Chemillier-Gendreau, ''Sovereignty Over the Paracel and Spratly Islands'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc&pg=PA74 p36] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101102529/https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&pg=PA74&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc#PPA36,M1 |date=January 1, 2016 }}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc&pg=PA74 p37], [https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc&pg=PA74 p68], [https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc&pg=PA74 p69], [https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc&pg=PA74 p71], [https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc&pg=PA74 p72], [https://books.google.com/books?id=58q1SMZbVG0C&dq=Samuels+%2B+hai+luc&pg=PA74 p74], [http://www.free-ebooks.net/ebook/Sovereignty-over-the-Paracel-and-Spratly-Islands/html/114 p129] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714170731/http://www.free-ebooks.net/ebook/Sovereignty-over-the-Paracel-and-Spratly-Islands/html/114 |date=July 14, 2014 }}, Kluwer Law International, {{ISBN|90-411-1381-9}}. Retrieved August 4, 2009</ref>

===== 1700–1799 =====
* In 1776, the ''Phủ Biên Tạp Lục'' (撫邊雜錄), the Miscellaneous Records on the Pacification of the Frontiers, published by [[Lê Quý Đôn]], a philosopher, an encyclopedist, and a Minister of Construction during the Lê dynasty (1428–1789). These six volumes detail the Nguyễn dynasty's territories, including the exploitation of the Paracel and Spratly Islands from 1702 onwards.<ref name="TSSĐ"/><ref name="PBTL"/><ref name="MCG"/>
* 1777–1784, when traveling to Cochinchina, Father [[Jean-Baptiste Grosier]] recorded his impression about maritime activities of the Vietnamese from [[Huế]], [[Đà Nẵng]], and [[Quảng Ngãi]]. The abbot Grosier wrote that the people from those ports were excellent and cleverest navigators in this Kingdom. One of their activities was making long-distance sailing every year to the long chain of islands and rocks known as the Paracels to collect debris from shipwrecks.<ref>Jean-Baptiste Grosier, [https://archive.org/details/delachineoudesc00grosgoog/page/n26 <!-- pg=16 quote=Les marins de ces trois ports sont les plus habiles du pays. --> De la Chine ou Description Générale De Cet Empire], p. 16, 3rd Edition, Chez Pillet, Imprimeur Libraire, Paris, 1818. Retrieved August 4, 2009</ref>

===== 1800–1899 =====
* 1802–1820, under the reign of Emperor [[Gia Long]], the territory of his kingdom included [[Tonkin]], [[Cochin China]], part of [[Cambodia]], and "certain islands off the coast including the well known Paracels which bear such an evil reputation as a source of danger to navigation in the China Seas."<ref>Richard Simpson Gundry, [https://archive.org/details/chinaandherneig00gundgoog/page/n31 <!-- pg=3 quote=Paracels and coast of Cochin China. --> China and Her Neighbours], p.3, Chapman and Hall Ltd., 1893, London. Retrieved July 4, 2009</ref> In 1802, Emperor Gia Long created the "Hoàng Sa Đội" (Company of the Paracels) to supervise the island exploitation.<ref name=Chang1991416>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Teh-Kuang|date=1991|title=China's Claim of Sovereignty over Spratly and Paracel Islands: A Historical and Legal Perspective|url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1644&context=jil|journal=Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law|volume=23|pages=416|access-date=27 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729141443/https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1644&context=jil|archive-date=July 29, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In 1807, the [[East India Company]] sent Captain [[Daniel Ross (marine surveyor)|Daniel Ross]] to [[Cochinchina]] to survey the Paracel Islands. Upon arriving to the kingdom, he presented a letter of introduction entrusted by the English company to the reigning king, who was believed to be Emperor Gia Long at that time.<ref>J. J. Higginbotham, [https://books.google.com/books?id=HkgOAAAAQAAJ&dq=Paracels+and+coast+of+Cochin+China&pg=PA447 Selections from the Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and its Dependencies: "A Cuccinct Historical Narrative of the East India Company's Endeavours"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101102529/https://books.google.com/books?id=HkgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA447&dq=Paracels+and+coast+of+Cochin+China&lr=#PPA447,M1 |date=January 1, 2016 }}, Vol. 13, p.447, 1822, Higginbotham & Co. Retrieved August 4, 2009</ref> Subsequently, Captain Ross completed chartering the south coast of China in 1807, the Paracel Islands in 1808, part of the coast of Cochin China in 1809, and the coast of [[Palawan]] in 1810. Most notably, in his surveys published in 1821 under the title "(South) China Sea, Sheet I & II", the [[Spratly Islands]] was referred to as The Dangerous Ground and was later renamed as Storm Island on the 1859 edition of the chart.<ref name="DH">David Hancox et al., [https://books.google.com/books?id=7Qu9fi-luTYC&dq=the+dangerous+ground+%2B+spratly&pg=PA38 A Geographical Description of the Spratly Islands and an Account of Hydrographic Surveys Amongst Those Islands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101102529/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Qu9fi-luTYC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=the+dangerous+ground+%2B+spratly&source=bl&ots=yip5oaohQA&sig=o2QkvBrC7rEVv2nTymDNOsOumHo&hl=en&ei=8kTgSbXzIYj4tAP5yNysCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#PPA32,M1 |date=January 1, 2016 }}, Marine Time Briefing, Vol. 1–6, pp. 31–32, International Research Unit. Retrieved November 4, 2009.</ref> Separately, in another document, the "Correct Chart of the China Sea", published by Herbert in 1758, the Paracel archipelago was described as a long group of islands and reefs extending from 13 to 17 degrees North, which approximately correspond to the geographic latitudes of the present-day Spratly and Paracel Islands, respectively.<ref name="DH"/> It is quite clearly that the captain himself, and probably most navigators of his time, did not differentiate the two archipelagos, but instead had delineated the present-day Spratly Islands as part of the Paracels. Captain Daniel Ross was a well known hydrographer of the Navy of [[Government of English Bengal]] and founder of the [[Bombay Geographical Society]].<ref>L. S. Dawson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kp4DAAAAYAAJ&dq=Paracels+and+coast+of+Cochin+China&pg=PA43 Memoirs of Hydrography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101102529/https://books.google.com/books?id=kp4DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA43&dq=Paracels+and+coast+of+Cochin+China&lr |date=January 1, 2016 }}, Part I, p.43, 1750–1850, The Imperial Library, Eastbourne. Retrieved August 4, 2009</ref>
* In 1815, Emperor Gia Long ordered Phạm Quang Anh's Hoàng Sa naval task unit to sail to the islands to make surveys and report on maritime routes and draw up maps.<ref name="MCG"/><ref name="DNTLCB">''The Encyclopedia of Nguyễn Dynasty History'' "Đại Nam Thực Lục Chính Biên", 1848 (Part I), 1864 (Part II), 1879 (Part III).</ref>
* In 1816, according to [[Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau]], Emperor Gia Long officially claimed the sovereignty of the Paracel Islands, which would include the present-day Spratly archipelago. These two islands were later delineated distinctly under the reign of his successor, Emperor [[Minh Mạng]]. Chaigneau was one of the most respected advisors to Emperor Gia Long. He spent more than 30 years in [[Cochinchina]] and became the first French [[Consul (representative)|Consul]] to this [[Monarchy|kingdom]] in 1821.<ref>J. B. Chaigneau, ''Le Mémoire sur la Cochinchine'', 1820.</ref>
* In 1821, the ''Lịch triều hiến chương loại chí'' (歷朝憲章類誌) published by Phan Huy Chú, a historian, an encyclopedist, and an officer of the Ministry of Construction in the time of emperor [[Minh Mạng]]. This remarkable work was prepared in 10 years (1809–1819) and consisted of 10 volumes. One of them, the ''Địa Dư Chí'' volume, details territories of [[Dai Nam|Dai Nam Kingdom]]. In 1838, he published the Đại Nam Thống Nhất Toàn Đồ, the Unified Đại Nam Complete Map, that distinctly delineated Vạn Lý Trường Sa (the Ten-thousand-league Long Sandbank) and Hoàng Sa (the Golden Sandbank).<ref name="PHC"/>
* In 1827, a world atlas produced by Belgian geographer Philippe Vandermaelen was published in Belgium. Vietnam was described by four maps in this atlas. One of these maps has the title "Partie de la [[Cochinchina|Cochinchine]]", in which Paracel Islands was [[:File:Partie de la Cochichine.jpg|included]], indicating that it was part of Cochinchine (southern Vietnam region). The map also featured geography, politics, minerals and statistics about the Empire of [[Vietnam|An Nam]] (former name of Vietnam). Moreover, the map titled "Partie de la Chine" in the atlas had identified [[Hainan]] Island as the southernmost point of China at that time.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://thanhniennews.com/politics/vietnam-submits-atlas-as-proof-of-island-ownership-26288.html | title=Vietnam submits atlas as proof of island ownership | publisher=[[Thanh Niên]] | date=14 May 2014 | access-date=7 June 2014 | author=Thanh Nien News | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525201409/http://thanhniennews.com/politics/vietnam-submits-atlas-as-proof-of-island-ownership-26288.html | archive-date=May 25, 2014 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* In 1833, Emperor Minh Mạng ordered the Ministry of Construction to build a temple, erect steles, and plant many trees on the islands for navigation purposes.<ref name="MCG"/><ref name="DNTLCB"/>
* In 1834, Emperor Minh Mạng ordered Trương Phúc Sĩ, a naval task unit commander, accompanied by 21 men sailing to the islands to survey and draw map of Hoàng Sa.<ref name="TSSĐ"/>
* In 1835, Emperor Minh Mạng issued a royal ordinance to order 24 troops to the Paracel Islands. Generations of the Đặng family have preserved the royal ordinance and publicly disclosed it in early 2009.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/vietnamese/vietnam/2009/04/090402_sacchi_hoangsa.shtml Tìm thấy sắc chỉ cổ về Hoàng Sa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404175021/http://www.bbc.co.uk/vietnamese/vietnam/2009/04/090402_sacchi_hoangsa.shtml |date=April 4, 2009 }}, BBC, Retrieved February 4, 2009.</ref>
* In 1835, the King ordered Phạm Văn Nguyên's naval task unit, accompanied by workers from Bình Định and Quãng Ngãi provinces, to build Hoàng Sa temple with a wind screen and erect steles on Bàn Than Thạch (Bàn Than Rock) of the present-day Woody Island. The mission was completed in 10 days. Notably, about 33m southwest from the erection, there was a little ancient temple where a stele engraved with the words "Vạn Lý Ba Bình" found. This inscription means Ten Thousand Leagues of Calming Waves. The date of the actual erection of the ancient temple remains unknown<ref name="MCG"/><ref name="DNTLCB"/>
* In 1836, Emperor Minh Mạng received a report from his Ministry of Construction that recommended a comprehensive survey of all the East Sea islands because of their "great strategic importance to our maritime borders."<ref name="MCG"/><ref>''Khâm Định Đại Nam Hội Điển Sự Lệ'', The Great Encyclopedia of History of the Nguyễn dynasty</ref> The King ordered Phạm Hữu Nhật, a royal navy commander, to erect a wooden stele on the islands. The post was engraved with the following inscription: ''The 17th of the reign of Minh Mạng by the royal ordinance commander of the navy Phạm Hữu Nhật came here to Hoàng Sa for reconnaissance to make topographical measurements and leave this stele as record thereof.''<ref name="MCG"/><ref name="DNTLCB"/>
* In 1838, Bishop [[Jean-Louis Taberd]] published the "Latin-Annamese Dictionary". The dictionary contains the "An Nam Đại Quốc Họa Đồ" (The Great Annam Map). In the neighborhood of the present-day coordinate of the islands, words found on the map read "Paracel seu Cát Vàng" (Paracel or Cát Vàng). Cát Vàng means Hoàng Sa, Golden Sands or Golden Sandbank.<ref name="JL"/>
* In 1842, ''Hai Lu Do Chi'', a historical Chinese document was written in the 22nd year of the reign of the [[Daoguang Emperor]] (1820–1850) of the [[Qing dynasty]] (1644 to 1912) of China. A statement found in this book read: ''Wang Li Shi Tang (万里石塘) is a sandbank rising above the sea. Several thousand leagues in length, it forms a rampart on the periphery of the Kingdom of [[Annam (French colony)|Annam]]''. Wang Li Shi Tang means Ten-thousand-league Long Sandbank.<ref name="MCG"/>
* In 1858, [[Napoleon III]] ordered French troops to attack [[Tourane]], the present-day Đà Nẳng city. Subsequently, France launched more attacks and forced Cochin China and some provinces in the South to become her colonies. [[French Indochina]] was formed in 1887 and consisted of [[Tonkin]], [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]], [[Cochin China]], and [[Cambodia]].
* The 1887 [[Chinese-Vietnamese Boundary Convention]] signed between France and China after the Sino-French War, which, according to China, put the islands in the Chinese territory.<ref name=Wortzel>{{cite book |last1=Wortzel|first1=Larry M.|last2=Wortzel|first2=Larry|last3=Higham|first3=Robin|year=1999 |title=Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rfu-hR8msh4C&pg=PA180 |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-29337-5 |page=180}}</ref> In fact, the treaty only clarified Gulf of Tonkin sea border and other land border issues between Vietnam and China.<ref>{{Citation|last=Nguyen|first=Thi Hanh |title=1. Le processus de délimitation de la frontière terrestre sino-tonkinoise entre la France et la Chine (1885-1895)|date=2019-01-18|work=Les conflits frontaliers sino-vietnamiens : De 1885 à nos jours|pages=63–107 |series=Quaero|place=Paris|publisher=Demopolis |isbn=978-2-35457-156-6 |url=http://books.openedition.org/demopolis/1383|access-date=2021-05-19}}</ref>
* 1895–1896, German vessel ''Bellona'' and Japanese ship ''Himeji Maru''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?209361|title=Himeji Maru Cargo Ship 1888-1896|website=Wrecksite|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> sank at the islands. Chinese fishermen looted and resold them at [[Hainan]]. These countries protested but local Chinese authorities, the Governor of Liang Guang, denied any responsibilities on the ground that the Paracels were abandoned and belonged to neither country.<ref name="MCG"/>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:MinhMang royal ordinance 1.jpg|The Royal Ordinance issued by Emperor Minh Mạng, 1835
File:HoangSa.jpg|Đại Nam Thống Nhất Toàn Đồ—The Unified Đại Nam Complete Map (1838)—distinctly delineated Hoàng Sa and Vạn Lý Trường Sa at the far right margin
File:Paracels.JPG|1880 German map of Southeast Asia, locating the Paracel Islands as part of "Annam"  (Vietnam)
File:Nam-Triều Quốc-Ngữ Công-Báo (南朝國語公報) số 8 (1938) - Dân Làm Báo.jpg|Imperial edict no. 10 of 29-02-Bảo Đại 13 (30 March 1938) transferring the Paracels from the [[Quảng Ngãi province]] to the [[Huế|Thừa Thiên province]] issued by the [[Bảo Đại]] Emperor as recorded in the ''Nam-Triều Quốc-Ngữ Công-Báo'' (南朝國語公報, "Bulletin of the [[Nguyễn dynasty|Southern dynasty]] in the National Language") số 8 (1938). Referring to the islands as "sovereign" (''chủ-quyền'') territory of [[Vietnam|the South]] (''nước Nam'') since "long ago and under previous dynasties" (''đã lâu đời và dưới các tiền triều'').
File:SacLuat-HoangSa.jpg|Decree no.174-NV from the presidency of [[Ngô Đình Diệm]], Republic of Vietnam, redistricting the Paracels as part of [[Quảng Nam Province]] effective 13 July 1961. The Paracels were previously part of [[Huế|Thừa Thiên–Huế Province]] since 30 March 1938, when redistricted by the government of [[French Indochina]].
</gallery>

==== China ====
===== 618–1279 =====
{{Wikisource|Zh:武經總要/前集/卷二十一#◎廣南東路|武經總要·前集·卷二十一·廣南東路}}

There are some Chinese cultural relics in the Paracel islands dating from the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song]] eras,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Briefing Investigation Report of Guangdong Province Xisha Islands' Culture Relics |journal=Culture Relics |date=October 1974 |author=Museum of Guangdong Province |pages=1–29, 95–102 |url=http://epub.cnki.net/grid2008/detail.aspx?filename=WENW197410000&dbname=CJFQ1979 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109112052/http://epub.cnki.net/grid2008/detail.aspx?filename=WENW197410000&dbname=CJFQ1979 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 9, 2009 |access-date=28 November 2008}}</ref>{{efn|Hainan was a part of Guangdong by then.}} and there is some evidence of Chinese habitation on the islands during these periods, though the relics are more likely washed ashore from shipwrecked [[Junk (ship)|junks]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Niangniang Temple and Corallite Little Temple in Paracel and Spratly Islands |journal=Southeast Asian Affairs |date=April 1990 |first=Zhenhua |last=Han |author2=LI Jinming |pages=86 |url=http://epub.cnki.net/grid2008/detail.aspx?filename=LYWT199004009&dbname=CJFQ1990 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108044849/http://epub.cnki.net/grid2008/detail.aspx?filename=LYWT199004009&dbname=CJFQ1990 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 8, 2009 |access-date=28 November 2008}}</ref> According to the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'', a book published in the [[Northern Song]] dynasty in 1044, the Song government then included the Islands in the patrol areas of the Navy of the Court.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:我国对西沙南沙群岛主权的历史和法理依据 |trans-title=Chinese Sovereignty Over the Xisha and Nansha Islands - Historic and Legal Basis for the Claim |url=http://xuewen.cnki.net/CJFD-HKGL703.014.html |publisher=CNKI |access-date=24 July 2014 |language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728145505/http://xuewen.cnki.net/CJFD-HKGL703.014.html |archive-date=July 28, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== 1279–1368 =====
{{Wikisource|Zh:島夷誌略|島夷誌略}}

The [[Yuan dynasty]] travel book ''[[Daoyi Zhilüe]]'' describes ''Wanli Shitang'' ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|萬|里|石|塘}}}}, <small>{{abbr|lit.|Literally}}</small>&nbsp;"Ten-Thousand Mile Rock Pool") as comprising three veins extending from [[Chaozhou]] to [[Borneo]], [[Côn Sơn Island]], and [[Java]].<ref name="security2" /> In 1279 the Yuan emperor sent the high-level official and astronomer, [[Guo Shoujing]], to the South China Sea to survey and measure the islands and the surrounding sea area. Guo's base of survey was claimed by China to be located in the Paracel Islands, although this is considered unlikely by many Chinese scholars.{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=12}} His activities were recorded in the ''Yuan Shi'', or [[History of Yuan]]. According to the ''Yuan Shi'', the [[South China Sea Islands|South China Sea islands]] were within the boundary of the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jianming Shen |title=International Law Rules and Historical Evidences Supporting China's Title to the South China Sea Islands |journal=Hastings Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. |volume=21 |issue=1 |at=Article 1 |date=1997 |url=https://repository.uchastings.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1467&context=hastings_international_comparative_law_review}}</ref> Maps published in the Yuan era invariably included the ''Changsha'' (the Paracels) and the ''Shitang'' (the Spratlys) within the domain of Yuan.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}
{{Wikisource|Zh:元史/卷162#○史弼|元史·卷一百六十二·列傳第四十九·史弼}}

===== 1368–1912 =====
Relevant local annals and other historic materials of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] (1368–1644) and the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] (1644–1912) dynasties continued to make reference to the South China Sea islands as China's territory.{{citation needed|reason=contain references to the South China Sea islands as China's territory|date=December 2010}} The [[Qiongshan District|Qiongzhou]] Prefecture (the highest administrative authority in Hainan), exercised jurisdiction over the Paracel and Spratly Islands in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

In the 19th century, Europeans found that Chinese fishermen from Hainan annually sojourned on the Paracel and Spratly Islands for part of the year.<ref>{{harvnb|Kivimäki|2002|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bateman|editor-first1=Sam|editor-last2=Emmers|editor-first2=Ralf|year=2008|title=Security and International Politics in the South China Sea: Towards a co-operative management regime |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0203885246 |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VrMXX3CgBMC}}</ref> For three months each year between 1881 and 1884, the German Imperial Navy sent two boats (the ship ''Freya'' and the warship ''Iltis'') to study and map the Paracel Islands without either seeking the permission of or incurring protest by the Chinese government. This mission was finished without any problems and the German Admiralty published the results in 1885 in a document called "Die Paracel-Inseln" (The Paracel Islands).{{sfn|Bonnet|2012|p=14}} In the period 1884 to 1885 the Tientsin Accord and Treaty of Tientsin were signed by Chinese representatives to attempt to address issues from an undeclared war between France acting on behalf of its protectorate territories in Vietnam and China.<ref>{{cite journal|url =https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=wcaaspapers|title =Great Britain and the Sino-French War: Problems of an Involved Neutral, 1883-1885|last =Chere|first =L.M.|year =2016|journal = Selected Papers in Asian Studies: Western Conference of the Association for Asian Studies|volume =1|issue =7|pages =1–26}}</ref> During this period between the treaties the Chinese did claim the Paracels.<ref name=Tkachenko2018/> 
In 1909, [[Zhang Renjun]] ({{zh|links=no |t=張人駿}}), the [[Viceroy of Liangguang]], ordered Guangdong [[Fleet Admiral]] Li Zhun ({{lang|zh-hant|李準}}) to sail to the Paracel Islands. In June, with over 170 sailors in three warships named ''Fubo'' ({{lang|zh-hant|伏波號}}), ''Guangjin'' ({{lang|zh-hant|廣金號}}) and ''Shenhang'' ({{lang|zh-hant|琛航號}}), he inspected 15 islands, erected stone tablets engraved with each island's name, raised China's flag and fired cannons to declare the islands "sacred territory of China",<ref name=Chang1991405>{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Teh-Kuang|date=1991|title=China's Claim of Sovereignty over Spratly and Paracel Islands: A Historical and Legal Perspective|url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1644&context=jil|journal=Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law|volume=23|pages=405|access-date=July 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729141443/https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1644&context=jil|archive-date=July 29, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> which France did not protest.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/paracels-valid-arguments-on-both-sides|title=Paracels: Valid arguments on both sides|last=migration|date=2014-07-11|work=The Straits Times|access-date=2018-07-29 |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729141641/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/paracels-valid-arguments-on-both-sides|archive-date=July 29, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1910, the Qing government decided to invite Chinese merchants to contract for the administration of the development affairs of the South China Sea islands, and demanded that officials shall provide protection and maintenance in order to highlight Chinese territory and protect its titles and interests.<ref>Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore, University of Virginia, "Security flashpoints: oil, islands, sea access and military confrontation", pp. 165–174.</ref>

===== 1912–1950s =====
After the fall of the [[Qing dynasty]], the new Government of [[Guangdong]] Province decided to place the Paracel Islands under the jurisdiction of the Ya Xian County of [[Hainan]] Prefecture in 1911. The Southern Military Government in 1921 reaffirmed the 1911 decision. China continued to exercise authority over the South China Sea islands by such means as granting licenses or contracts to private Chinese merchants for the development and exploitation of guano and other resources on those islands and protesting against foreign nations' claims, occupations, and other activities. For example, in May 1928, the Guangdong provincial government sent a naval vessel, the ''Hai-jui'' ({{lang|zh-hant|海瑞號}}), with an investigation team organized by the provincial government and [[Sun Yat-sen University|Sun Yat-Sen University]] to investigate and survey the islets,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hungdah |first1=Chiu|last2=Park|first2=Choon-Ho|date=1975|title=Legal status of the Paracel and Spratly Islands|journal=Ocean Development & International Law|volume=3|pages=1–28|doi=10.1080/00908327509545556}}</ref> after which the investigation team produced a detailed Report of Surveys on the Paracel Islands.<ref>Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore, University of Virginia, "Security flashpoints: oil, islands, sea access and military confrontation", pp. 176.</ref>

On July{{nbsp}}27, 1932, the [[Chinese Foreign Ministry]] instructed the Chinese Envoy to France to lodge a diplomatic protest to the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France)|French Foreign Ministry]] and to deny France's claims to the Paracel Islands. On November 30 of the same year, [[Zhu Zhaoshen]], a high-level inspection official of the Chinese Foreign Ministry, issued public correspondence Number 66 to the French Consul in [[Guangzhou]], reiterating that "it is absolutely beyond doubt that the Xisha [Paracel] Islands fall within the boundary of China". Despite repeated Chinese protests, French troops, who had colonized [[French Indochina]] in the 19th century, invaded and occupied the Paracel Islands on July 3, 1938. This took place shortly after the breakout of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], when the armed forces of China and Japan were busy elsewhere. Three days later, on July 6, the Japanese Foreign Ministry also issued a declaration in protest of the French occupation <ref>{{Cite web |title=Paracel Islands {{!}} World Factbook |url=https://relief.unboundmedicine.com/relief/view/The-World-Factbook/563179/all/Paracel_Islands?refer=true |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=relief.unboundmedicine.com |language=en}}</ref>
{{blockquote|The statement of Great Britain and France made respectively in 1900 and 1921 already declared that the Xisha [Paracel] Islands were part of the Administrative Prefecture of [[Hainan]] Island. Therefore, the current claims made by [[Annam (French protectorate)|An'nam]] or France to the Xisha Islands are totally unjustifiable.}}

During the [[Second World War]], the Japanese expelled the French troops and took over the islands in spite of the 1938 declarations. The Spratlys and the Paracels were conquered by Japan in 1939. Japan administered the Spratlys via [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]]'s jurisdiction and the Paracels via Hainan's jurisdiction.<ref name="Kivimäki 2002 10"/> The Paracels and Spratlys were handed over to [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Republic of China]] control after the 1945 surrender of Japan,<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|Nishihara|1997|p=124}}</ref> since the Allied powers had assigned the Republic of China to receive Japanese surrenders in that area.<ref name="Severino 2011 74"/> At the end of the war (Asian-Pacific Region), Nationalist China formally retook the Paracels, Spratlys and other islands in the South China Sea in October and November 1946. In the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva accord]] of 1954 Japan formally renounced all of its claims to, ''inter alia'', the South China Sea islands which it had occupied during the World War II.<ref>Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore, University of Virginia, "Security flashpoints: oil, islands, sea access and military confrontation", p174-185</ref> After WW2 ended, the Republic of China was the "most active claimant". The Republic of China then garrisoned Woody Island in the Paracels in 1946 and posted Chinese flags and markers on it; France tried, but failed, to make them leave Woody island.<ref name="Kivimäki 2002 11"/> The aim of the Republic of China was to block the French claims.<ref name="Severino 2011 74"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Spratly Islands - reefs, shoals, atolls, and islets, South China Sea |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561209/Spratly-Islands|access-date=May 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520232007/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561209/Spratly-Islands |archive-date=May 20, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In December 1947, the Republic of China drew up a map showing its [[nine-dash line|eleven-dotted line]] U-shaped claim to the entire South China Sea, including the Spratly and Paracel Islands as Chinese territory.<ref name="Severino 2011 76"/>

==== 20th-century events ====
*In the 1910-20s, the French Ministry of Colonies and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs agreed that the Paracel Islands were under Chinese sovereignty, and that France should not try to claim them, either on behalf of itself, or Annam. Therefore, France did not protest in 1921 when the government of Guangdong province declared the Paracels to be under the administration of Hainan Island. 5 years later in 1926, France refused an application from a French company to exploit guano in the Paracels. It also refused a similar application from a Japanese company.{{sfn|Tonnesson|2006}}
* In 1932, France nonetheless formally claimed both the Paracel and Spratly Islands.  China and Japan both protested.  On 6 April 1933, France occupied the Spratlys, announced their annexation, formally included them in French Indochina, and built a couple of weather stations on them.{{sfn|Tonnesson|2006}}<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Binoche |first=Jacques |date=1990 |title=La politique extrême-orientale française et les relations franco-japonaises de 1919 à 1939 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/sfhom_1768-7144_1990_ant_10_1_1002 |journal=Publications de la Société française d'histoire des outre-mers |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=263–275}}</ref>
* On 3 July 1938,<ref name=":3" /> French Indochinese colonial troops, headed by sub-lieutenant Edmond Grethen,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-19 |title=Un Thionvillois au Mont Valérien |url=https://www.thionville.fr/fr/actualite/un-thionvillois-au-mont-val-rien |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=www.thionville.fr |language=fr}}</ref> occupy the Paracels islands in turn.
* In March 1939<ref name=":3" /> Japan took the islands from France, garrisoned them, and built a submarine base at [[Itu Aba]] (now Taiping / 太平) Island. In 1941, the Japanese Empire made the Paracel and Spratly islands part of Taiwan, then under its rule.{{sfn|Tonnesson|2006}}
* After World War II, Nationalist China reaffirmed its sovereignty over the islands in the [[South China Sea]], and dispatched a patrol force to the islands, but this was challenged by the French.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}
* After the fall of the [[Kuomintang|nationalist regime]] in China in 1949, the PRC gained control of the eastern half of the Paracel islands. Several small clashes occurred between the French and the communist Chinese naval forces during this period, but eventually a de facto line of control was established with the PRC occupying Woody Island, while the remainder was held by Franco -Vietnamese forces.
* In 1951, at the international [[Treaty of San Francisco]] conference, Vietnam's representative claimed that both the Paracels and Spratlys are territories of Vietnam, and was met with no challenge from all nations at the event.<ref name=Chang1991416 /> However, neither the PRC nor the ROC participated in the conference. Separately, the ROC negotiated and signed its own treaty with Japan regarding the islands on April 29, 1952.{{sfn|Tonnesson|2006}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20136/volume-136-i-1832-english.pdf|title=No. 1832. TREATY 1 OF PEACE WITH JAPAN. SIGNED AT SAN FRANCISCO, ON 8 SEPTEMBER 1951|date=September 8, 1951|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref>
* In 1954, according to the [[Geneva Agreements]], which were signed by a number of nations including the PRC,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/21/newsid_3894000/3894175.stm 1954: Peace deal ends Indo-China war] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120185805/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/21/newsid_3894000/3894175.stm |date=January 20, 2013 }}, BBC News. Retrieved on 4-23-2009.</ref><ref>Robert B. Asprey, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rlp5Q69nClMC&dq=The+agreements+were+signed+by+France,+China,+the+Soviet+Union,+Great+Britain,+Cambodia,+Laos,+and+the+Vietminh.&pg=PA595 War in the Shadows] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101102529/https://books.google.com/books?id=rlp5Q69nClMC&pg=PA595&lpg=PA595&dq=The+agreements+were+signed+by+France,+China,+the+Soviet+Union,+Great+Britain,+Cambodia,+Laos,+and+the+Vietminh.&source=bl&ots=Ri0pSgapWF&sig=zTLOt6f9pQjLlNffeVkqaMMRjv8&hl=en&ei=qVXxSZK9EpWatAOQq9DcCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2 |date=January 1, 2016 }}, IUniverse, 2002. {{ISBN|0-595-22594-2}}. Retrieved on 4-23-2009.</ref> Vietnam was partitioned into two states, [[North Vietnam]] and [[South Vietnam]]. The 17th parallel was used as the provisional military demarcation line, which was effectively extended into the territorial waters.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} {{citation needed span|date=June 2022|The Paracel archipelago lies south of this line and belongs to South Vietnam accordingly.}}
* In 1956, after the French withdrawal from Vietnam, South Vietnam replaced French control of the islands. By February 1956, the South Vietnamese Navy was already stationed on Pattle Island by [[Ngô Đình Diệm]],{{sfn|Tonnesson|2006}} though both the PRC and ROC politically and diplomatically condemned the decision and reaffirmed their claims to the islands.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} Following on the former French claim, Vietnam claimed the entire Paracel Islands.<ref name="MHN">Myron H. Nordquist et al., University of Virginia, Center for Oceans Law, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DKXRRfWtkw8C&dq=reasons+of+the+battle+of+paracel+islands+in+1974&pg=PA141 Security Flashpoints] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101102529/https://books.google.com/books?id=DKXRRfWtkw8C&pg=PA141&dq=reasons+of+the+battle+of+paracel+islands+in+1974&lr=#PPA143,M1 |date=January 1, 2016 }}, pp.142–143, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998. Retrieved on 4-17-2009.</ref>
* On September 4, 1958, the government of the PRC proclaimed the breadth of its territorial sea to be twelve nautical miles (22&nbsp;km) which applied to all its territory, including the Paracel and Spratly Islands. Ten days later, the prime minister of [[North Vietnam]], [[Phạm Văn Đồng]], in his letter to [[Zhou Enlai]] stated that his government had respected the declaration of the PRC government. The PRC government used this letter as justification for their occupation, in fact, according to PhD Nguyen Van Canh: "''The note of a prime minister, that is, the executive, is just an administrative document in the field of diplomacy, and in the matter of territorial transfers, the constitutions of countries stipulate that there must be a treaty regulating the transfer of territory and determine that problem. In other words, the National Assembly decides on that issue, and the National Assembly reflects the will of the entire people when transferring territory."''<ref>{{harvnb|Morley|Nishihara|1997|pp=126–127}}</ref><ref name="MCG"/><ref>[http://www.rfa.org/vietnamese/in_depth/Solution-for--Pham-Van-Dong-Diplomatic-Note-09172008164518.html Giải pháp cho Việt Nam về Công hàm của ông Phạm Văn Đồng?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429013228/http://www.rfa.org/vietnamese/in_depth/Solution-for--Pham-Van-Dong-Diplomatic-Note-09172008164518.html |date=April 29, 2015 }} ''RFA Vietnamese'' 2008-09-17</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thanhniennews.com/politics/late-vietnam-pms-letter-gives-no-legal-basis-to-chinas-island-claim-26821.html|title=Late Vietnam PM's letter gives no legal basis to China's island claim|date=June 3, 2014|publisher=[[Thanh Niên]]|access-date=Jun 10, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611070201/http://thanhniennews.com/politics/late-vietnam-pms-letter-gives-no-legal-basis-to-chinas-island-claim-26821.html|archive-date=June 11, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[File:HoangSa-thu-dedoc-tranvanchon.jpg|thumbnail|Letter from South Vietnam's General Staff of the Republic of Vietnam Military Forces, dated 18 February 1974, concerning the Battle of the Paracel Islands]]<!-- --> On January 19, 1974, the Battle of the Paracel Islands between the PRC and South Vietnam took place, leaving the PRC in control of the entire archipelago.<ref name="Gwertzman">{{Cite news |last=Gwertzman |first=Bernard |date=26 January 1974 |title=Peking Reports Holding U.S. Aide |url=http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1974/01/26/79903943.html?pageNumber=1 |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York, NY |access-date=20 July 2016 }}</ref> On January 16, South Vietnamese naval officers and an American observer had reported to [[Saigon]] some suspected military activities of the [[People's Liberation Army Navy|Chinese navy]] on the Drummond and Duncan islands. After receiving the report, the government of South Vietnam decided to counter the Chinese forces, to defend the South Vietnamese-controlled section (the western half of the Paracels) from Chinese occupation,<ref>Thomas J. Cutler, [http://www.pcf45.com/cosgrp16/cosgrp16.html The Battle for the Paracel Islands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008184717/http://pcf45.com/cosgrp16/cosgrp16.html |date=October 8, 2010 }}, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD. Retrieved on 4-24-2009.</ref> and sent a unit of [[frigates]] to the area. On January 19, there were sea and land battles between the Chinese and Vietnamese forces with casualties on both sides. At the end, the Chinese fleet defeated the naval force of South Vietnam. With the ongoing civil war with the [[Viet Cong]] embroiling South Vietnam's attention and the absence of the USA's support, no military attempt was made to re-engage the PRC over the islands. After the military engagement and the subsequent victory, the PRC gained control of the entire archipelago and has maintained control since.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=254}} It was a significant turning point for the PRC but the sovereignty dispute on the islands remains unresolved with [[Vietnam]].
* In 1982, Vietnam established [[Hoang Sa District]] in [[Quang Nam-Da Nang]] covering these islands.<ref>{{in lang|vi}}{{cite web |title= Huyện đảo Hoàng Sa |publisher= Da Nang City |url= http://www.danangcity.gov.vn/portal/page/portal/danang/chinhquyen/gioi_thieu/don_vi_hanh_chinh?p_pers_id=&p_folder_id=6904276&p_main_news_id=8981394&p_year_sel= |access-date= August 28, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904011606/http://www.danangcity.gov.vn/portal/page/portal/danang/chinhquyen/gioi_thieu/don_vi_hanh_chinh?p_pers_id=&p_folder_id=6904276&p_main_news_id=8981394&p_year_sel= |archive-date= September 4, 2015 |url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vietnam.vn/the-hoang-sa-paracel-and-truong-sa-spratly-archipelagoes-and-international-law-1988-c1070n20120102121508750.htm |title=The Hoang Sa (Paracel) and Truong Sa (Spratly) archipelagoes and international law 1988 |publisher=Authority of Foreign Information Service of Vietnam |access-date=August 28, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313233455/http://www.vietnam.vn/the-hoang-sa-paracel-and-truong-sa-spratly-archipelagoes-and-international-law-1988-c1070n20120102121508750.htm}}</ref>
* In a statement released on 13 July 1999 by the foreign ministry of Taiwan, under President [[Lee Teng-hui]] stated that "legally, historically, geographically, or in reality", all of the South China Sea and the islands were Taiwan's territory and under Taiwanese sovereignty.<ref>{{cite news |author=STRATFOR's Global Intelligence Update |date=July 14, 1999 |title=Taiwan sticks to its guns, to U.S. chagrin |newspaper=Asia Times |url=http://www.atimes.com/china/AG15Ad01.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000929110352/http://www.atimes.com/china/AG15Ad01.html |archive-date=September 29, 2000 |access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref> The ROC's and the PRC's claims "mirror" each other.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sisci |first=Francesco |date=Jun 29, 2010 |title=US toe-dipping muddies South China Sea |newspaper=Asia Times |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LG29Ad01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730065234/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LG29Ad01.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 30, 2010 |access-date=14 May 2014}}</ref> Taiwan and China are largely strategically aligned on the islands issue, since they both claim exactly the same area, so Taiwan's claims are viewed{{by whom|date=July 2014}} as an extension of China's claims.<ref name=Wortzel/> Taiwan and China both claim the entire island chains, while all the other claimants only claim portions of them, and China has proposed cooperation with Taiwan against all the other countries claiming the islands, such as Vietnam.<ref name="atimes1">{{cite web |title=Taiwan pours cement on maritime dispute |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/NH10Ad01.html |access-date=2014-03-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809143313/http://atimes.com/atimes/China/NH10Ad01.html |archive-date=August 9, 2012}} Kastner Aug 10, 2012.</ref> China has urged Taiwan to cooperate and offered Taiwan a share in oil and gas resources while shutting out all the other rival claimants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/NF13Ad01.html |title=Taiwan circling South China Sea bait |access-date=2014-05-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120613002911/http://atimes.com/atimes/China/NF13Ad01.html |archive-date=June 13, 2012}} Kastner Jun 13, 2012.</ref> Board director Chiu Yi of Taiwan's state run oil company, CPC Corp, has named Vietnam as the "greatest threat" to Taiwan.<ref name="atimes1"/> The United States has regularly ignored Taiwan's claims in the South China Sea and does not include Taiwan in any talks on dispute resolution for the area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/CHINA-01-140213.html |title=Asia Times Online :: China News, China Business News, Taiwan and Hong Kong News and Business |access-date=2014-05-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214094938/http://atimes.com/atimes/China/CHINA-01-140213.html |archive-date=February 14, 2013}} Womack Feb 14, 2013.</ref>

==== 21st-century events ====
*In July 2012 the National Assembly of Vietnam passed a law demarcating Vietnamese sea borders to include the Paracel and [[Spratly Islands]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120626045014/http://www.smh.com.au/world/china-gets-tough-as-vietnam-claims-disputed-islands-20120622-20th6.html China gets tough as Vietnam claims disputed islands], Sydney Morning Herald, 23 June 2012 (archived from [https://www.smh.com.au/world/china-gets-tough-as-vietnam-claims-disputed-islands-20120622-20th6.html the original] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626045014/http://www.smh.com.au/world/china-gets-tough-as-vietnam-claims-disputed-islands-20120622-20th6.html |date=June 26, 2012 }} on 2012-06-22)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/news/world/china-criticizes-vietnam-in-dispute-over-islands-641399/ |author=Jane Perlez |date=June 21, 2012 |title=China Criticizes Vietnam in Dispute Over Islands |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |access-date=June 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623063435/http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/news/world/china-criticizes-vietnam-in-dispute-over-islands-641399/ |archive-date=June 23, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
:
:The Philippines and Vietnam promptly lodged diplomatic protests strongly opposing the establishment of the Sansha City under Chinese jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement of the Spokesman of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Viet Nam: Vietnam opposes the establishment of the so-called "Sansha City." |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Viet Nam |date=June 21, 2012 |url=http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/tt_baochi/pbnfn/ns120622034115 |access-date=July 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509204934/http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/tt_baochi/pbnfn/ns120622034115 |archive-date=May 9, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.sina.com/world/2012/0705/483699.html |title=Philippines summons Chinese ambassador to protest Sansha city |publisher=Sina.com |date=July 6, 2012 |access-date=July 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714050919/http://english.sina.com/world/2012/0705/483699.html |archive-date=July 14, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

*In April 2013, a representative from the Vietnamese [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam)|Foreign Ministry]]'s National Boundary Commission gave a diplomatic note to a representative of the [[List of diplomatic missions of China|Chinese Embassy]] in [[Hanoi]] demanding that China cancel its plan to bring tourists to the Paracel archipelago.<ref>[http://talkvietnam.com/2013/04/vietnam-asks-china-to-end-tourism-plan-in-hoang-sa/ Vietnam asks China to end tourism plan in Hoang Sa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509191724/http://talkvietnam.com/2013/04/vietnam-asks-china-to-end-tourism-plan-in-hoang-sa/ |date=May 9, 2013 }}, April 2013, TalkVietnam.com</ref>
{{Main article|Haiyang Shiyou 981 standoff}}
:According to reports from Chinese state media, at the beginning of May 2014, Chinese and Vietnamese naval vessels collided near the islands as Hanoi sought to prevent a Chinese [[Haiyang Shiyou 981 standoff|oil rig]] from setting up in the area.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/article/1506633/ships-collide-vietnam-tries-stop-china-oil-rig-deployment-disputed-waters | title=Ships collide as Vietnam tries to stop China oil rig deployment in disputed waters | newspaper=[[South China Morning Post]] | date=7 May 2014 | access-date=7 May 2014 | author=[[Associated Press]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507200608/http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/article/1506633/ships-collide-vietnam-tries-stop-china-oil-rig-deployment-disputed-waters | archive-date=May 7, 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> On May 26, a Vietnamese fishing boat sank near the oil rig, after colliding with a Chinese vessel. As both sides imputed the blame to each other, Vietnam released a video footage in a week later, showing a Chinese vessel ramming into its ship before it sank; the Chinese said they were on the defensive while Vietnamese vessels were attacking the Chinese fishing boats.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-05/vietnam-says-china-still-harassing-boats-shows-video-of-sinking.html | title=Vietnam Says China Still Ramming Boats, Airs Sinking Video | publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] | date=6 June 2014 | access-date=6 June 2014 | author=[[Bloomberg News]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112161732/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-05/vietnam-says-china-still-harassing-boats-shows-video-of-sinking.html | archive-date=January 12, 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref>

*On May 9, 2014, Taiwan reiterated its claim to the Paracel islands, rejecting all rival claims amidst the standoff and repeating its position that all of the Paracel Islands, [[Spratly Islands]], [[Macclesfield Bank]] and [[Pratas Islands]] belong to the Republic of China along with "their surrounding waters and respective seabed and subsoil", and that Taiwan views both Vietnam and mainland China's claims as illegitimate.  This statement was released by Taiwan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which added – "There is no doubt that the Republic of China has sovereignty over the archipelagos and waters."<ref>{{cite news |title= Taiwan reiterates Paracel Islands sovereignty claim |url= http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2014/05/11/2003590086 |author= Staff writer with CNA |work= Taipei Times |date= 11 May 2014 |page= 3 |access-date= June 16, 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151016023230/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2014/05/11/2003590086 |archive-date= October 16, 2015 |url-status= live }}</ref>
*In January 2016, photographs emerged that indicate that China is reclaiming land and expanding military facilities in the Paracels, including at Duncan Island, North Island, and Tree Island. Commentators have likened this work to the initial stages of China's large-scale construction in the Spratly Islands.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/02/satellite-images-china-manufactures-land-at-new-sites-in-the-paracel-islands/|title=Satellite Images: China Manufactures Land at New Sites in the Paracel Islands|author=Victor Robert Lee|magazine=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|date=13 February 2016|access-date=2016-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217024231/https://thediplomat.com/2016/02/satellite-images-china-manufactures-land-at-new-sites-in-the-paracel-islands/|archive-date=February 17, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* On July 12, 2016, an [[Philippines v. China|arbitration]] under the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] (UNCLOS) backed the Philippines against China's claims of resources and maritime areas within the [[nine-dash line]] that exceeded its entitlements under the UNCLOS.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/aa32a224-480e-11e6-8d68-72e9211e86ab.html |title=Timeline: South China Sea dispute |date=12 July 2016 |work=Financial Times |access-date=July 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804071405/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/aa32a224-480e-11e6-8d68-72e9211e86ab.html |archive-date=August 4, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://time.com/4400671/philippines-south-china-sea-arbitration-case/?xid=homepage |magazine=TIME |title=China's Global Reputation Hinges on Upcoming South China Sea Court Decision |first=Hannah |last=Beech |date=11 July 2016 |access-date=July 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713195604/http://time.com/4400671/philippines-south-china-sea-arbitration-case/?xid=homepage |archive-date=July 13, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The tribunal argued that China had not historically exercised exclusive control within, hence has "no legal basis" to claim "historic rights" over resources.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/china/21702069-region-and-america-will-now-anxiously-await-chinas-response-un-appointed-tribunal |title=A UN-appointed tribunal dismisses China's claims in the South China Sea |date=12 July 2016 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=September 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913091610/https://www.economist.com/news/china/21702069-region-and-america-will-now-anxiously-await-chinas-response-un-appointed-tribunal |archive-date=September 13, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/13/world/asia/south-china-sea-hague-ruling-philippines.html?_r=0 |title=Beijing's South China Sea Claims Rejected by Hague Tribunal |first=Jane |last=Perez |date=12 July 2016 |work=The New York Times |access-date=March 3, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712152027/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/13/world/asia/south-china-sea-hague-ruling-philippines.html?_r=0 |archive-date=July 12, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ruling was rejected by both China and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-36771749 |title=South China Sea: Tribunal backs case against China brought by Philippines |date=12 July 2016 |work=BBC |access-date=June 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620040633/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-36771749 |archive-date=June 20, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/1988990/taiwan-controlled-taiping-island-rock-says |title=Taiwan-controlled Taiping Island is a rock, says international court in South China Sea ruling |date=12 July 2016 |work=South China Morning Post |author1=Jun Mai |author2=Shi Jiangtao |access-date=July 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715074244/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/1988990/taiwan-controlled-taiping-island-rock-says |archive-date=July 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In February 2017, the AMTI project under the [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] reported that Chinese authorities had carried out land reclamation on 20 reefs, thus establishing 20 Chinese outposts so far.<ref>{{cite web |title=UPDATE: China's Continuing Reclamation in the Paracels |url=https://amti.csis.org/paracels-beijings-other-buildup/ |website=Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative |publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies}}</ref> These include [[Duncan Island]] and [[Drummond Island, Paracel Islands|Drummond Island]] which also have small helipads. Of these, three were capable of berthing small naval and commercial merchant ships.<ref name="csisfeb2017" /> Vietnam had responded to this by expanding its already existing facilities on some of the Spratly islands occupied by it.<ref name="csisnov2016">{{cite web|title=UPDATED: Vietnam Responds with Spratly Air Upgrades|url=https://amti.csis.org/vietnam-responds/|website=www.amti.csis.org|publisher=CSIS|access-date=9 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222194015/https://amti.csis.org/vietnam-responds/|archive-date=February 22, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>