Editing Pali (section)

====Assimilations====

=====General rules=====
*Many [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilations]] of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pali, producing a large number of [[Gemination|geminate]] (double) consonants. Since [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate '''kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph''' and '''bh''' appear as '''kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph''' and '''bbh''', not as ''khkh, ghgh'' etc.
*Initial consonant clusters are simplified to a single consonant.
::Examples: '''prāṇa''' (respiration) → '''pāṇa''' (not ''ppāṇa''), '''sthavira''' (compact, dense) → '''thera''' (not ''tthera''), '''dhyāna''' (meditation) → '''jhāna''' (not ''jjhāna''), '''jñāti''' (intelligence) → '''ñāti''' (not ''ññāti'')
*When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence.
::Examples: '''uttrāsa''' (fear, terror) → '''uttāsa''' (not ''utttāsa''), '''mantra''' (instrument of thought, speech) → '''manta''' (not ''mantta''), '''indra''' (conqueror) → '''inda''' (not ''indda''), '''vandhya''' (barren, fruitless, deprived) → '''vañjha''' (not ''vañjjha'')
*The sequence '''vv''' resulting from assimilation changes to '''bb.'''
::Example: '''sarva''' (all, every, various) → savva → '''sabba''', '''pravrajati''' (one moves forth) → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''divya''' (supernatural, wonderful, magical) → divva → '''dibba''', '''nirvāṇa''' (deceased, extinguished; extinction, cessation, vanishing, disappearance) → nivvāṇa → '''nibbāna'''

=====Total assimilation=====
Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound.

======Regressive assimilations======
* Internal [[visarga]] assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant
::Examples: '''duḥkṛta''' (='''duṣkṛta''', wrong-done) → '''dukkata''', '''duḥkha''' (difficult, unagreeable) → '''dukkha''', '''duḥprajña''' (misknowledge) → '''duppañña''', '''niḥkrodha''' (='''niṣkrodha''', wrath) → '''nikkodha''', '''niḥpakva''' (='''niṣpakva''', well-cooked, decocted, infused) → '''nippakka''', '''niḥśoka''' (ugly, unhappy, inglorious)→ '''nissoka''', '''niḥsattva''' → '''nissatta'''
* In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop
::Examples: '''vimukti''' → '''vimutti''', '''dugdha''' → '''duddha''', '''utpāda''' → '''uppāda''', '''pudgala''' → '''puggala''', '''udghoṣa''' → '''ugghosa''', '''adbhuta''' → '''abbhuta''', '''śabda''' → '''sadda'''
* In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal
::Example: '''unmatta''' → '''ummatta''', '''pradyumna''' → '''pajjunna'''
* '''j''' assimilates to a following '''ñ''' (i.e., '''jñ''' becomes '''ññ''')
::Examples: '''prajñā''' → '''paññā''', '''jñāti''' → '''ñāti'''
* The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v'''
::Examples: '''mārga''' → '''magga''', '''karma''' → '''kamma''', '''varṣa''' → '''vassa''', '''kalpa''' → '''kappa''', '''sarva''' → savva → '''sabba'''
* '''r''' assimilates to a following '''l'''
::Examples: '''durlabha''' → '''dullabha''', '''nirlopa''' → '''nillopa'''
* '''d''' sometimes assimilates to a following '''v''', producing vv → '''bb'''
::Examples: '''udvigna''' → uvvigga → '''ubbigga''', '''dvādaśa''' → '''bārasa''' (beside '''dvādasa''')
* '''t''' and '''d''' may assimilate to a following '''s''' or '''y''' when a morpheme boundary intervenes
::Examples: '''ut+sava''' → '''ussava''', '''ud+yāna''' → '''uyyāna'''

======Progressive assimilations======
* Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs)
::Examples: '''agni''' (fire) → '''aggi''', '''ātman''' (self) → '''atta''', '''prāpnoti''' → '''pappoti''', '''śaknoti''' → '''sakkoti'''
* '''m''' assimilates to an initial sibilant
::Examples: '''smarati''' → '''sarati''', '''smṛti''' → '''sati'''
* Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals
::Examples: '''tīkṣṇa''' → tikṣa → '''tikkha''', '''lakṣmī''' → lakṣī →'''lakkhī'''
* The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v'''
::Examples: '''prāṇa''' → '''pāṇa''', '''grāma''' → '''gāma''', '''śrāvaka''' → '''sāvaka''', '''agra''' → '''agga''', '''indra''' → '''inda''', '''pravrajati''' → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''aśru''' → '''assu'''
* '''y''' assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals
::Examples: '''cyavati''' → '''cavati''', '''jyotiṣ''' → '''joti''', '''rājya''' → '''rajja''', '''matsya''' → macchya → '''maccha''', '''lapsyate''' → lacchyate → '''lacchati''', '''abhyāgata''' → '''abbhāgata''', '''ākhyāti''' → '''akkhāti''', '''saṁkhyā''' → '''saṅkhā''' (but also '''saṅkhyā'''), '''ramya''' → '''ramma'''
* '''y''' assimilates to preceding non-initial '''v''', producing vv → '''bb'''
::Example: '''divya''' → divva → '''dibba''', '''veditavya''' → veditavva → '''veditabba''', '''bhāvya''' → bhavva → '''bhabba'''
* '''y''' and '''v''' assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing '''ss'''
::Examples: '''paśyati''' → '''passati''', '''śyena''' → '''sena''', '''aśva''' → '''assa''', '''īśvara''' → '''issara''', '''kariṣyati''' → '''karissati''', '''tasya''' → '''tassa''', '''svāmin''' → '''sāmī'''
* '''v''' sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop
::Examples: '''pakva''' → '''pakka''', '''catvāri''' → '''cattāri''', '''sattva''' → '''satta''', '''dhvaja''' → '''dhaja'''

=====Partial and mutual assimilation=====
* Sanskrit [[Sibilant consonant|sibilants]] before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; e.g. '''śc''', '''st''', '''ṣṭ''' and '''sp''' become '''cch''', '''tth''', '''ṭṭh''' and '''pph'''
::Examples: '''paścāt''' → '''pacchā''', '''asti''' → '''atthi''', '''stava''' → '''thava''', '''śreṣṭha''' → '''seṭṭha''', '''aṣṭa''' → '''aṭṭha''', '''sparśa''' → '''phassa'''
* In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. '''str''' and '''ṣṭr''' become '''tth''' and '''ṭṭh'''
::Examples: '''śāstra''' → śasta → '''sattha''', '''rāṣṭra''' → raṣṭa → '''raṭṭha'''
* '''t''' and '''p''' become '''c''' before '''s''', and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences '''ts''' and '''ps''' become '''cch''')
::Examples: '''vatsa''' → '''vaccha''', '''apsaras''' → '''accharā'''
* A sibilant assimilates to a preceding '''k''' as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence '''kṣ''' becomes '''kkh''')
::Examples: '''bhikṣu''' → '''bhikkhu''', '''kṣānti''' → '''khanti'''
* Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by '''y''' converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the '''y''' assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. '''ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny''' become '''cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ'''; likewise '''ṇy''' becomes '''ññ'''. Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change.
::Examples: '''tyajati''' → cyajati → '''cajati''', '''satya''' → sacya → '''sacca''', '''mithyā''' → michyā → '''micchā''', '''vidyā''' → vijyā → '''vijjā''', '''madhya''' → majhya → '''majjha''', '''anya''' → añya → '''añña''', '''puṇya''' → puñya → '''puñña''', '''vandhya''' → vañjhya → vañjjha → '''vañjha'''
* The sequence '''mr''' becomes '''mb''', via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate.
::Examples: '''āmra''' → ambra → '''amba''', '''tāmra''' → '''tamba'''