Editing New France (section)

==Military conflicts==
{{Main|French and Indian Wars|Father Rale's War|Father Le Loutre's War}}
{{Further|Military of New France}}

The presence of settlers, of businesses from several European countries harvesting furs, along with the interests of the indigenous people in this new competition for North American resources set the scene for significant military conflicts among all parties in New France beginning in 1642, and ending with the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763.

===Iroquois attacks against Montreal===
[[File:Battle of Long Sault 1660.jpg|thumb|Engraving depicting Adam Dollard with a keg of gunpowder above his head, during the [[Battle of Long Sault]] ]]

[[Ville-Marie, Quebec|Ville-Marie]] was a noteworthy site for it was the center of defence against the [[Iroquois]], the point of departure for all western and northern journeys, and the meeting point to which the trading Indians brought their annual furs. This placed Ville-Marie, later known as [[Montreal]], at the forefront against the [[Iroquois]], which resulted in its trade being easily and frequently interrupted. The Iroquois were in alliance with the Dutch and English,<ref name="Inc.2010">{{cite book |title=Native Peoples of the Americas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dqbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |isbn=978-1-61535-365-1 |page=99}}</ref> which allowed them to interrupt the French fur trade and send the furs down the [[Hudson River]] to the Dutch and English traders.<ref name="Rich, E. E. 1966">{{cite book |last=Rich |first=E. E. |date=1966 |title=Montreal And The Fur Trade |url=https://archive.org/details/montrealfurtrade0000unse |url-access=registration |location=Montreal |publisher=McGill University Press}}</ref>

This also put the Iroquois at warfare against the [[Hurons]], the [[Algonquians]], and any other tribes that were in alliance with the French. If the Iroquois could destroy New France and its Indian allies, they would be able to trade freely and profitably with the Dutch and English on the Hudson River.<ref name="AyersGould">{{cite book |first1=Edward L. |last1=Ayers |first2=Lewis L. |last2=Gould |first3=David M. |last3=Oshinsky |first4=Jean R. |last4=Soderlund |title=American Passages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVcIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-111-80846-4 |page=78}}</ref> The Iroquois formally attacked the settlement at today's [[History of Quebec City|Quebec City]] in its foundation year of 1642, and in almost every subsequent year thereafter.<ref name="Otterbein2004">{{cite book |first=Keith F. |last=Otterbein |title=How War Began |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxjbvn6uARcC&pg=PA211 |year=2004 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1-60344-637-2 |page=211}}</ref> A militant theocracy maintained Montreal. In 1653 and 1654, reinforcements arrived at Montreal, which allowed the Iroquois to be halted.<ref name="Adams2013">{{cite book |first=Charles E. |last=Adams |title=Assault on a Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fesAhWZo0fUC&pg=PA52 |date=2013 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=978-1-4836-1293-5 |page=52}}{{self-published source|date=December 2017}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} In that year the Iroquois made peace with the French.<ref name="Rich, E. E. 1966"/>

[[Adam Dollard des Ormeaux]], a colonist and soldier of New France, was a notable figure regarding the Iroquois attacks against Montreal. The Iroquois soon resumed their assaults against Montreal, and the few settlers of Montreal fell almost completely to hostile Iroquois forces. The [[Iroquois]] did not use typical raiding tactics of moving swiftly and silently. Instead, they captured individuals and brought them back to their own territory. Women and children were made a part of the village, and men encountered slow torturous deaths. In the 1660s, warfare changed, and France began to counterattack. Professional French soldiers had arrived in the New World for the first time, and [[Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy|Alexandre de Prouville]] led them to invade Iroquois territory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Our Proud History {{!}} Algonquins of Ontario |url=https://www.tanakiwin.com/algonquins-of-ontario/our-proud-history/ |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=www.tanakiwin.com}}</ref> In the spring of 1660, Adam Dollard des Ormeaux led a small militia consisting of 16 men from Montreal against a much larger Iroquois force at the [[Battle of Long Sault]] on the [[Ottawa River]].<ref name="Gough2010n">{{cite book |first=Barry M. |last=Gough |title=Historical Dictionary of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4xK6CasigkC&pg=PR27 |year=2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7504-3 |page=27}}</ref> They succeeded in turning back the Iroquois invasion and are responsible for saving Montreal from destruction.<ref name="Del?geBrierley2011">{{cite book |first=Denys |last=Delâge |others=translated by [[Jane Brierley]] |title=Bitter Feast: Amerindians and Europeans in Northeastern North America, 1600–64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2v8DLEbNkPIC&pg=PA277 |year=1995 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-4282-2 |page=277}}</ref> They were able to take [[Chief Canaqueese]] as a prisoner, and in September 1660, the French returned and burned [[Iroquois]] homes and crops. Later that Winter, many Iroquois died due to starvation, and the Iroquois finally agreed to peace which lasted roughly twenty years.<ref name=":2" /> The encounter between Ormeaux and the Iroquois is of significance because it dissuaded the Iroquois from further attacks against Montreal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Keith |year=1980 |title=Fur Trade In Canada: Focus On Canadian History Series |url=https://archive.org/details/furtradeincanada0000wils |url-access=registration |location=Toronto |publisher=Grolier Limited}}</ref>

===King William's War===
{{Main|King William's War}}
[[File:QueenAnnesWarBefore.svg|thumb|Map of [[North America]] in 1702 showing forts, towns and (in solid colors) areas occupied by European settlements]]

In 1688, [[King William's War]] began and the English and Iroquois launched a major assault on New France, after many years of small skirmishes throughout the English and French territories. New France and the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine.<ref name=Williamson>{{cite book |first=William Durkee |last=Williamson |title=The history of the state of Maine |volume=II |publisher=Glazier, Masters & Co |date=1832 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=670rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27}}</ref><ref name=Griffiths>{{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=N.E.S. |title=From Migrant to Acadian |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |date=2005 |page=61 |isbn=978-0-7735-2699-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cG4wSmIlziYC&pg=PA61}}</ref><ref name=Campbell>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William Edward |title=The Road to Canada: The Grand Communications Route from Saint John to Quebec |publisher=Goose Lane Editions and The New Brunswick Heritage Military Project |date=2005 |page=21 |isbn=978-0-8649-2426-1}}</ref> [[King William's War]] ended in 1697, but a second war ([[Queen Anne's War]]) broke out in 1702. Quebec survived the English invasions of both these wars, and during the wars France seized many of the English [[Hudson's Bay Company]] fur trading centres on [[Hudson Bay]] including [[York Factory]], which the French renamed ''Fort Bourbon''.

===Queen Anne's War===
{{Main|Queen Anne's War}}

While Acadia defeated an English invasion attempt during [[King William's War]], the colony was occupied by the British during Queen Anne's War. The final [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Conquest of Acadia]] happened in 1710. In 1713, peace came to New France with the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://worldcat.org/en/title/81453222 |title=Blooding at Great Meadows: young George Washington and the battle that Shaped the Man |first=Alan |last=Axelrod |publisher=Running Press |page=62 |year=2007 |isbn=9780762432271}}</ref> Although the treaty turned Hudson Bay, [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] and part of [[Acadia]] (peninsular [[Nova Scotia]]) over to Great Britain, France remained in control of [[Île Royale (New France)|Île Royale]] ([[Cape Breton Island]]) (which also administered Île Saint-Jean ([[Prince Edward Island]])). The northern part of [[Acadia]], what is today [[New Brunswick]] and [[Maine]], remained contested territory. Construction of [[Fortress Louisbourg]] on Île Royale, a French military stronghold intended to protect the approaches to the St. Lawrence River settlements, began in 1719.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Louisbourg |url=http://www.fortressoflouisbourg.ca/Overview/mid/12 |publisher=The Fortress Louisbourg Association |year=2008 |access-date=9 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723021109/http://www.fortressoflouisbourg.ca/Overview/mid/12 |archive-date=23 July 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Father Rale's War===
{{Main|Father Rale's War}}
[[File:Death of Father Sebastian Rale of the Society of Jesus.jpg|thumb|An 1850s depiction of the death of the French [[Jesuit]] priest [[Sébastien Rale]] during [[Father Rale's War]] ]]

In Acadia, however, war continued. [[Father Rale's War]] (1722–1725) was a series of battles between New England and the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]], who were allied with New France. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy defended against the expansion of New England settlements into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine.<ref name=Williamson/><ref name=Griffiths/><ref name=Campbell/> After the New England [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Conquest of Acadia]] in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia was under the control of New England, but both present-day [[New Brunswick]] and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France. To secure New France's claim to the region, it established [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] missions among the three largest indigenous villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River ([[Norridgewock]]); one further north on the [[Penobscot River]] ([[Penobscot Indian Island Reservation|Penobscot]]) and one on the [[Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)|Saint John River]] ([[Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic|Medoctec]]).<ref>{{CRHP|14831|Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic National Historic Site of Canada |20 December 2011}}</ref><ref name=Grenier>{{cite book |first=John |last=Grenier |title=The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |date=2008 |pages=51, 54 |isbn=978-0-8061-3876-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVG5h6G5fWMC&pg=PA51}}</ref>

The war began on two fronts: when New England pushed its way through Maine and when New England established itself at [[Canso, Nova Scotia]]. As a result of the war, Maine fell to the New Englanders with the defeat of Father [[Sébastien Rale]] at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the indigenous peoples from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers to [[Saint-François-du-Lac, Quebec|St. Francis]] and [[Bécancour, Quebec|Becancour, Quebec]].{{efn|While New Englanders safely settled the land, not until the treaty of 1752 did Massachusetts officially lay claim to the entire Penobscot watershed, and in 1759, the Pownall Expedition, led by Governor [[Thomas Pownall]], established [[Fort Pownall]] on [[Cape Jellison]] in what is now [[Stockton Springs, Maine|Stockton Springs]].}}

===King George's War===
{{Main|King George's War}}

Peace lasted in Canada until 1744, when news of the outbreak of the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] ([[King George's War]] in North America) reached Fort Louisbourg. The French forces went on the attack first in a failed attempt to capture [[Annapolis Royal]], the capital of British Nova Scotia. In 1745, [[William Shirley]], governor of [[Massachusetts]], led a counterattack on Louisbourg. Both France and New France were unable to relieve the siege, and Louisbourg fell to the British. With the famed [[Duc d'Anville Expedition]], France attempted to retake Acadia and the fortress in 1746 but failed. The fortress was returned to France under the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], but the peace treaty, which restored all colonial borders to their pre-war status, did little to end the lingering enmity between France, Britain, and their respective colonies, nor did it resolve any territorial disputes.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

===Father Le Loutre's War===
{{Main|Father Le Loutre's War}}

Within Acadia and Nova Scotia, [[Father Le Loutre's War]] (1749–1755) began with the British founding of [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]]. During Father Le Loutre's War, New France established three forts along the border of present-day New Brunswick to protect it from a New England attack from Nova Scotia. The war continued until British [[Battle of Fort Beauséjour|victory at Fort Beausejour]], which dislodged Father Le Loutre from the region, thereby ending his alliance with the Maliseet, [[Acadians]] and [[Mi'kmaq]].<ref name=Grenier/>

===French and Indian War===
{{Main|French and Indian War|Expulsion of the Acadians}}
[[File:Nouvelle-France map-en.svg|thumb|Map of territorial claims in [[North America]] by 1750, before the [[French and Indian War]], which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), France (blue), and Spain. (White border lines mark later Canadian Provinces and US States for reference)]]

[[Fort Duquesne]], located at the confluence of the [[Allegheny River|Allegheny]] and [[Monongahela River]]s at the site of present-day [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], guarded the most important strategic location in the west at the time of the Seven Years' War. It was built to ensure that the [[Ohio River]] valley remained under French control. A small colonial force from Virginia began a fort here, but a French force under [[Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur]] drove them off in April 1754. New France claimed this as part of their colony, and the French were anxious to keep the British from encroaching on it. The French built Fort Duquesne here to serve as a military stronghold and as a base for developing trade and strengthening military alliances with the indigenous peoples of the area.

In 1755, General [[Edward Braddock]] led [[Braddock Expedition|an expedition]] against Fort Duquesne, and although they were numerically superior to the French militia and their Indian allies, Braddock's army was routed and Braddock was killed.<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9580/ |title=The Battle of the Monongahela |website=[[World Digital Library]] |date=1755 |access-date=22 February 2016}}</ref> Later that same year at the Battle of Lake George, the British General William Johnson with a force of 1700 American and Iroquois troops defeated a French force of 2800 French and Canadians and 700 [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] led by Baron Dieskau (Military commander of New France).

The fight for control over Ohio Country led to the [[French and Indian War]], which began as the North American phase of the [[Seven Years' War]] (which did not technically begin in Europe until 1756). The war began with the defeat of a Virginia militia contingent led by Colonel [[George Washington]] by the French [[troupes de la marine]] in the [[Ohio Country|Ohio valley]]. As a result of that defeat, the British decided to prepare the conquest of Quebec City, the capital of New France. The British defeated France in Acadia in the [[Battle of Fort Beausejour]] (1755) and then [[Île Royale (New France)|Île Royale]] ([[Cape Breton Island]]) (which also administered Île Saint-Jean ([[Prince Edward Island]]) with the [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)]].

Throughout the war, the British deported the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies and Europe, which the Acadian militias resisted with assistance from Mi'kmaq and Malisteet forces. The [[Expulsion of the Acadians|Great Upheaval]] continued from 1755 to 1764. In 1756, a large force of French, Canadians, and their Native American allies led by the Marquis de Montcalm launched an attack against the key British post at Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario from Fort Frontenac and forced the garrison to surrender. The following year Montcalm with a huge force of 7,200 French and Canadian troops and 2,400 Native Americans laid siege to Fort William Henry on the southern shores of Lake George, and after three weeks of fighting the British commander Monroe surrendered. Montcalm gave him honorable terms to return to England and not to fight for 18 months. And yet, when the British force with civilians was three miles from the fort, the Native American allies massacred about 1,100 of the 1,500 strong force.

In 1758, the French suffered a defeat when the British captured the fortress city of Louisborg in July, while gaining a victory at  [[Fort Carillon]] in July.  The [[Battle of Carillon]] was fought at the fortress of the same name, which is located on a strip of land between Lake Champlain and Lake George, and which was defended by 3,400 French regular troops and marines, with minimal support from militia and indigenous peoples.  The battle was the largest seen in North America up to that time, as General James Abercrombie assembled a force of 16,200 British, American, and Iroquois troops.  A spirited French defense led the British to withdraw after a fierce battle on the 8th of July, 1758.  During the battle, the British suffered 2,200 casualties and lost several artillery pieces, while the French received roughly 104 killed and 273 wounded.

While the British [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Conquest of Acadia]] happened in 1710, the French continued to remain a significant force in the region with [[Fort Beausejour]] and [[Fortress Louisbourg]]. The dominant population in the region remained Acadian, that is to say, not British. In 1755, the British were successful in the [[Battle of Beausejour]] and immediately after began the [[expulsion of the Acadians]].

In the meantime the French continued to explore westwards and expand their trade alliances with indigenous peoples. [[Fort de la Corne]] was built in 1753, by [[Louis de la Corne, Chevalier de la Corne]] just east of the [[Saskatchewan River Forks]] in what is today the Canadian province of [[Saskatchewan]]. This was the furthest westward outpost of the French Empire in North America to be established before its fall.