Editing Indira Gandhi (section)

== Economic policy ==
{{Further|Economic policy of the Indira Gandhi government}}
Gandhi presided over three [[Five-Year Plans of India|Five-Year Plans]] as prime minister, two of which succeeded in meeting their targeted growth.<ref name="Growth statistics">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRWDxpHcBHoC&q=sixth%20five%20year%20plan%20of%20india%20growth%20actual%205.6&pg=PA114|title=World bank and economic development of India|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2000|isbn=978-81-7648-121-2|page=375|author=L. N. Dash}}</ref>

There is considerable debate whether Gandhi was a socialist on principle or out of political expediency.<ref name="Rosser" /> [[Sunanda K. Datta-Ray]] described her as "a master of rhetoric&nbsp;... often more posture than policy", while ''[[The Times]]'' journalist, Peter Hazelhurst, famously quipped that Gandhi's socialism was "slightly left of self-interest."<ref name="Indira">{{cite web|author=Datta-Ray, Sunanda |url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=166151&sectioncode=22 |title=Indira – terror personified or goddess? |publisher=Timeshighereducation.co.uk |date=7 December 2001 |access-date=31 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722143044/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=166151&sectioncode=22 |archive-date=22 July 2012 }}</ref> Critics have focused on the contradictions in the evolution of her stance towards communism. Gandhi was known for her anti-communist stance in the 1950s, with [[Meghnad Desai]] even describing her as "the scourge of [India's] Communist Party."<ref name="Desai">{{cite book|first=Meghnad|last=Desai|title=The Rediscovery Of India|publisher=[[Penguin Books India]]|year=2011|page=346|isbn=978-0-14-341735-4}}</ref> Yet, she later forged close relations with Indian communists even while using the army to break the [[Naxalite]]s. In this context, Gandhi was accused of formulating populist policies to suit her political needs. She was seemingly against the rich and big business while preserving the status quo to manipulate the support of the left in times of political insecurity, such as the late 1960s.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}}<ref name="Jaffrelot">{{Cite book| publisher = [[C. Hurst & Co. Publishers]]| pages = 131–142|url={{Google books|-rMW03l_gx0C|page=PA136|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-1-85065-398-1| last = Jaffrelot| first = Christoph| title = India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India| year = 2003}}</ref> Although in time Gandhi came to be viewed as the scourge of the right-wing and reactionary political elements of India, leftist opposition to her policies emerged. As early as 1969, critics had begun accusing her of insincerity and [[Machiavellianism (politics)|machiavellianism]]. ''The Indian Libertarian'' wrote, "it would be difficult to find a more machiavellian leftist than Mrs Indira Gandhi... for here is [[Machiavelli]] at its best in the person of a suave, charming and astute politician."<ref>The Indian Libertarian, Volume 15–17. 1969. [[University of Virginia]].</ref> [[J. Barkley Rosser Jr.]] wrote that "some have even seen the declaration of emergency rule in 1975 as a move to suppress [leftist] dissent against Gandhi's policy shift to the right."<ref name="Rosser" /> In the 1980s, Gandhi was accused of "betraying socialism" after the beginning of ''Operation Forward'', an attempt at economic reform.<ref name="Datta-Ray">Sunanda K. Datta-Ray; "Indira Gandhi: Enigma, Mother-Goddess and Terror Incernate". 3 November 1994. [[The Straits Times]] (Singapore).</ref> Nevertheless, others were more convinced of Gandhi's sincerity and devotion to socialism. Pankaj Vohra noted that "even the late prime minister's critics would concede that the maximum number of legislations of social significance was brought about during her tenure... [and that] she lives in the hearts of millions of Indians who shared her concern for the poor and weaker sections and who supported her politics."<ref name="aam aadmi">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsPankajVohra/The-original-aam-aadmi-leader/Article1-471695.aspx |title=The original aam aadmi leader |publisher=Hindustantimes.com |date=1 November 2009 |access-date=31 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513074215/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsPankajVohra/The-original-aam-aadmi-leader/Article1-471695.aspx |archive-date=13 May 2013 }}</ref>

In summarising the biographical works on Gandhi, Blema S. Steinberg concludes she was decidedly non-ideological.<ref name="Steinberg">{{cite book|first= Blema|last=Steinberg|title=Women in Power: The Personalities and Leadership Styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher|publisher=[[McGill-Queen's Press]]|year=2008|pages=79–95|isbn=978-0-7735-3356-1}}</ref> Only 7.4% (24) of the total 330 biographical extractions posit ideology as a reason for her policy choices.<ref name="Steinberg" /> Steinberg notes Gandhi's association with socialism was superficial. She had only a general and traditional commitment to the ideology by way of her political and family ties.<ref name="Steinberg" /> Gandhi personally had a fuzzy concept of socialism. In one of the early interviews she gave as prime minister, Gandhi ruminated, "I suppose you could call me a socialist, but you have understand what we mean by that term&nbsp;... we used the word [socialism] because it came closest to what we wanted to do here–which is to eradicate poverty. You can call it socialism; but if by using that word we arouse controversy, I don't see why we should use it. I don't believe in words at all."<ref name="Steinberg" /> Regardless of the debate over her ideology or lack thereof, Gandhi remains a left-wing icon. She has been described by ''Hindustan Times'' columnist, Pankaj Vohra, as "arguably the greatest mass leader of the last century."<ref name="aam aadmi" /> Her campaign slogan, Garibi Hatao ('Remove Poverty'), has become an often used motto of the Indian National Congress Party.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nation-world/top-six-political-slogans-and-their-impact/indira-hatao-desh-bachao/slideshow/23599159.cms |title=Top six political slogans and their impact |date=6 October 2013 |website=economictimes.indiatimes.com |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415054813/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nation-world/top-six-political-slogans-and-their-impact/indira-hatao-desh-bachao/slideshow/23599159.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> To the rural and urban poor, untouchables, minorities and women in India, Gandhi was "Indira Amma or Mother Indira."<ref name="Chandra 2007c">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Penguin Books India]]| page = 335|url={{Google books|dE9qEg-NgHMC|page=PA335|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-14-310409-4| last = Chandra| first = Bipan|author2=Aditya Mukherjee |author3=Mridula Mukherjee | title = India Since Independence| year = 2008}}</ref>

=== Green Revolution and the Fourth Five-Year Plan ===
Gandhi inherited a weak and troubled economy. Fiscal problems associated with the war with Pakistan in 1965, along with a drought-induced food crisis that spawned famines, had plunged India into the sharpest recession since independence.<ref name="Kapila1">{{Cite book| publisher =Academic Foundation| page = 126|url={{Google books|de66PkzcfusC|page=PA126|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-7188-105-5| last1 = Kapila| first1 = Raj| last2= Kapila| first2= Uma| title = Understanding India's economic Reforms| year = 2004}}</ref><ref name="Rosser" /> The government responded by taking steps to liberalise the economy and agreeing to the devaluation of the currency in return for the restoration of foreign aid.<ref name="Kapila1" /> The economy managed to recover in 1966 and ended up growing at 4.1% over 1966–1969.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}}<ref name="Nayak">{{Cite book| publisher = [[SAGE Publications]]| pages = 8–9|url={{Google books|TxkfWrkb2n4C|page=PA8|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-321-0452-0| last = Nayak| first = Pulin|author2=Bishwanath Goldar |author3=Pradeep Agrawal | title = India's Economy and Growth| year = 2010}}</ref> Much of that growth however, was offset by the fact that the external aid promised by the United States government and the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD), meant to ease the short-run costs of adjustment to a liberalised economy, never materialised.<ref name="Kapila1" /> American policy makers had complained of continued restrictions imposed on the economy. At the same time, Indo-US relations were strained because of Gandhi's criticism of the American bombing campaign in Vietnam. While it was thought at the time, and for decades after, that President Johnson's policy of withholding [[Food for Peace|food grain shipments]] was to coerce Indian support for the war, in fact, it was to offer India rainmaking technology that he wanted to use as a counterweight to China's possession of the atomic bomb.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://faculty.georgetown.edu/khb3/Osiris/papers/Doel-Harper.pdf |title=Prometheus unleashed: Science as A diplomatic weapon in the Lyndon B. Johnson administration |access-date=3 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215072525/http://faculty.georgetown.edu/khb3/Osiris/papers/Doel-Harper.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Oliver">{{cite book|first=Robert W.|last=Oliver|title=George Woods and the World Bank|year=1995|page=144|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1-55587-503-9}}</ref> In light of the circumstances, liberalisation became politically suspect and was soon abandoned.<ref name="Kapila1" /> Grain diplomacy and currency devaluation became matters of intense national pride in India. After the bitter experience with Johnson, Gandhi decided not to request food aid in the future. Moreover, her government resolved never again to become "so vulnerably dependent" on aid, and painstakingly began building up substantial foreign exchange reserves.<ref name="Kirk">{{Cite book| publisher = Anthem Press| pages = 20–21|url={{Google books|nALKqdykmrwC|page=PA17|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-85728-412-9| last = Kirk| first = Jason A.| title = India and the World Bank: The Politics of Aid and Influence| year = 2011}}</ref> When food stocks slumped after poor harvests in 1972, the government made it a point to use foreign exchange to buy US wheat commercially rather than seek resumption of food aid.<ref name="Kux">{{Cite book| publisher = DIANE Publishing| page = 311|url={{Google books|zcylFXH9_z8C|page=PA311|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-7881-0279-0| last = Kux| first = Dennis| title = India and the United States: Estranged Democracies, 1941–1991| year = 1992}}</ref>

The period of 1967–75 was characterised by socialist ascendency in India, which culminated in 1976 with the [[List of amendments of the Constitution of India|official declaration of state socialism]]. Gandhi not only abandoned the short-lived liberalisation programme but also aggressively expanded the public sector with new licensing requirements and other restrictions for industry. She began a new course by launching the Fourth Five-Year Plan in 1969. The government targeted growth at 5.7% while stating as its goals, "growth with stability and progressive achievement of self-reliance."{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}}<ref name="Gupta">{{Cite book| publisher = Deep and Deep Publications| page = 7|url={{Googlebooks|8D0iS_EF8_AC|page=PA7|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-7629-559-8| last = Gupta| first = K. L.|author2=Harvinder Kaur| title = New Indian Economy and Reforms| year = 2004}}</ref> The rationale behind the overall plan was Gandhi's ''Ten-Point Programme'' of 1967. This had been her first economic policy formulation, six months after coming to office. The programme emphasised greater state control of the economy with the understanding that government control assured greater welfare than private control.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} Related to this point were a set of policies that were meant to regulate the private sector.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} By the end of the 1960s, the reversal of the liberalisation process was complete, and India's policies were characterised as "protectionist as ever."<ref name="Kirk" />

To deal with India's food problems, Gandhi expanded the emphasis on production of inputs to agriculture that had already been initiated by her father, Jawaharlal Nehru.<ref name="Rosser" /> The [[Green Revolution in India]] subsequently culminated under her government in the 1970s. It transformed the country from a nation heavily reliant on imported grains, and prone to famine, to one largely able to feed itself, and becoming successful in achieving its goal of food security. Gandhi had a personal motive in pursuing agricultural self-sufficiency, having found India's dependency on the U.S. for shipments of grains humiliating.<ref>{{cite book|first=Maya|last=Chadda|title=Building Democracy in South Asia|location=London|publisher=[[Lynne Rienner Publishers]]|year=2000|page=150|isbn=978-1-55587-859-7}}</ref>

The economic period of 1967–1975 became significant for its major wave of nationalisation amidst increased regulation of the private sector.<ref name="Rosser" /> Some other objectives of the economic plan for that period were providing for the minimum needs of the community through a rural works program and the removal of the privy purses of the nobility.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} Those and many other goals of the 1967 programme were accomplished by 1974–1975. Nevertheless, the success of the overall economic plan was tempered by the fact that annual growth at 3.3–3.4% over 1969–1974 fell short of the targeted figure.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}}

=== The Fifth Five-Year Plan ===
The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974–1979) was enacted with the backdrop of the state of emergency and the ''Twenty Point Program'' of 1975.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} It was the economic rationale of the emergency, a political act which has often been justified on economic grounds.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} In contrast to the reception of Gandhi's earlier economic plan, this one was criticised for being a "hastily thrown together wish list."{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} She promised to reduce poverty by targeting the consumption levels of the poor and enact wide-ranging social and economic reforms. In addition, the government targeted an annual growth rate of 4.4% over the period of the plan.<ref name="Growth statistics" />

The measures of the emergency regime was able to halt the economic trouble of the early to mid-1970s, which had been marred by harvest failures, fiscal contraction, and the breakdown of the [[Bretton Woods system]] of fixed exchanged rates. The resulting turbulence in the foreign exchange markets was accentuated further by the oil shock of 1973.<ref name="Nayak" /> The government was able to exceed the targeted growth figure with an annual growth rate of 5.0–5.2% over the five-year period of the plan (1974–79).<ref name="Growth statistics" />{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} The economy grew at the rate of 9% in 1975–76 alone, and the Fifth Plan, became the first plan during which the per capita income of the economy grew by over 5%.<ref name="Kelly">{{Cite book| publisher = [[World Scientific]]| page = 62|url={{Google books|eijMYAdeLkYC|page=PA62|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-981-256-494-8| last = Kelly| first = D. David A.|author2=Ramkishen S. Raj |author3=Gillian H. L. Goh | title = Managing Globalisation: Lessons from China And India| year = 2010}}</ref>

=== Operation Forward and the Sixth Five-Year Plan ===
Gandhi inherited a weak economy when she became prime minister again in 1980.<ref name="Harley">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Routledge]]| page = 192|url={{Google books|PtINAAAAQAAJ|page=PA192|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-415-00161-8
| last = Harley| first = Keith|author2=Todd Sandler| title = The Economics of Defence Spending: An International Survey| year = 1990}}</ref> The preceding year—1979–80—under the Janata Party government saw the strongest recession (−5.2%) in the history of modern India with inflation rampant at 18.2%.<ref name="Rosser" /><ref name="Kelly" /><ref name="Lal">{{cite book|last=Lal|first=Deepak |title=The Hindu Equilibrium: India c.1500 B.C. – 2000 A.D.|url=https://archive.org/details/hinduequilibrium00lald|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-927579-3|year=2004|page=[https://archive.org/details/hinduequilibrium00lald/page/n329 314]}}</ref> Gandhi proceeded to abrogate the Janata Party government's Five-Year Plan in 1980 and launched the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980–85). Her government targeted an average growth rate of 5.2% over the period of the plan.<ref name="Growth statistics" /> Measures to check inflation were also taken; by the early 1980s it was under control at an annual rate of about 5%.<ref name="Lal" />

Although Gandhi continued professing socialist beliefs, the Sixth Five-Year Plan was markedly different from the years of Garibi Hatao. Populist programmes and policies were replaced by pragmatism.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}} There was an emphasis on tightening public expenditures, greater efficiency of the [[state-owned enterprise]]s (SOE), which Gandhi qualified as a "sad thing", and on stimulating the private sector through deregulation and liberation of the capital market.<ref name="Waterbury">{{cite book|first=John|last=Waterbury|title=Exposed to Innumerable Delusions: Public Enterprise and State Power in Egypt, India, Mexico, and Turkey|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1993|page=58|isbn=978-0-521-43497-3}}</ref> The government subsequently launched ''Operation Forward'' in 1982, the first cautious attempt at reform.<ref name="Rendezvous">{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/sunanda-k-datta-ray-rendezvousronnie/152623/ |title=Sunanda K Datta Ray: Rendezvous with Ronniel |publisher=Business-standard.com |date=12 June 2004 |access-date=31 July 2013|newspaper=Business Standard India |last1=Ray |first1=Sunanda K. Datta }}</ref> The Sixth Plan went on to become the most successful of the Five-Year Plans yet; showing an average growth rate of 5.7% over 1980–85.<ref name="Growth statistics" />

=== Inflation and unemployment ===
[[File:Oil Prices Since 1861.svg|thumb|The price of oil during the [[1970s energy crisis]], the graph shows sharp increases in 1973 and again in 1979]]

During Lal Bahadur Shastri's last full year in office (1965), inflation averaged 7.7%, compared to 5.2% at the end of Gandhi's first term in office (1977).<ref name="inflation">Centre for Monitoring the Indian Economy; ''Basic Statistics Relating to the Indian Economy''. Economic Intelligence Service. August 1993.</ref> On average, inflation in India had remained below 7% through the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name="Kapila">{{cite book|last=Kapila|first=Uma|title=Indian Economy Since Independence|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-708-8|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/indianeconomysin0000unse/page/838 838]|url=https://archive.org/details/indianeconomysin0000unse/page/838}}</ref> It then accelerated sharply in the 1970s, from 5.5% in 1970–71 to over 20% by 1973–74, due to the international oil crisis.<ref name="inflation" /> Gandhi declared inflation the gravest of problems in 1974 (at 25.2%) and devised a severe anti-inflation program. The government was successful in bringing down inflation during the emergency; achieving negative figures of −1.1% by the end of 1975–76.<ref name="Harley" /><ref name="inflation" />

Gandhi inherited a tattered economy in her second term; harvest failures and a [[second oil shock]] in the late 1970s had caused inflation to rise again.<ref name="Harley" /> During Charan Singh's short time in office in the second half of 1979, inflation averaged 18.2%, compared to 6.5% during Gandhi's last year in office (1984).<ref name="Lal" /><ref name="inflation" /> General economic recovery under Gandhi led to an average inflation rate of 6.5% from 1981–82 to 1985–86—the lowest since the beginning of India's inflation problems in the 1960s.<ref name="Kapila" />

The unemployment rate remained constant at 9% over a nine-year period (1971–80) before declining to 8.3% in 1983.{{sfn|Malik|1988|pp=60–72}}<ref name=" Chandhoke">{{Cite book| publisher = [[Pearson plc|Pearson]]| page = 60|url={{Google books|bVHHyAs6tdwC|page=PA60|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-81-317-1929-9| last = Chandhoke| first = Neera|author2=Praveen Priyadarshi| title = Contemporary India: Economy, Society, Politics| year = 2009}}</ref>