Editing Graphite (section)

==History of synthetic==

===Invention of a production process===
In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, [[Edward Goodrich Acheson]] (1856–1931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing [[Silicon carbide|carborundum]] (also called silicon carbide). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that [[silicon]] vaporizes at about {{cvt|4150|C|F}}, leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant.<ref name=Brit/>

Acheson's technique for producing silicon carbide and graphite is named the [[Acheson process]]. In 1896, Acheson received a patent for his method of synthesizing graphite,<ref>Acheson, E. G. "Manufacture of Graphite", {{US Patent|568323}}, issued September 29, 1896.</ref> and in 1897 started commercial production.<ref name=Brit/> The Acheson Graphite Co. was formed in 1899.

Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and then commercialized.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kato |first1=Tomofumi |last2=Yamada |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Nishikawa |first3=Yasushi |last4=Ishikawa |first4=Hiroki |last5=Sato |first5=Satoshi |title=Carbonization mechanisms of polyimide: Methodology to analyze carbon materials with nitrogen, oxygen, pentagons, and heptagons |journal=Carbon |date=June 2021 |volume=178 |pages=58–80 |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2021.02.090 |bibcode=2021Carbo.178...58K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kato |first1=Tomofumi |last2=Yamada |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Nishikawa |first3=Yasushi |last4=Otomo |first4=Toshiya |last5=Sato |first5=Hayato |last6=Sato |first6=Satoshi |title=Origins of peaks of graphitic and pyrrolic nitrogen in N1s X-ray photoelectron spectra of carbon materials: quaternary nitrogen, tertiary amine, or secondary amine? |journal=Journal of Materials Science |date=October 2021 |volume=56 |issue=28 |pages=15798–15811 |doi=10.1007/s10853-021-06283-5 |bibcode=2021JMatS..5615798K }}</ref>

===Scientific research===

[[Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite]] (HOPG) is the highest-quality synthetic form of graphite. It is used in scientific research, in particular, as a length standard for the calibration of [[scanning probe microscope]]s.<ref name="automatic1998">{{cite journal |last1=Lapshin |first1=Rostislav V. |title=Automatic lateral calibration of tunneling microscope scanners |journal=Review of Scientific Instruments |date=1 September 1998 |volume=69 |issue=9 |pages=3268–3276 |doi=10.1063/1.1149091 |bibcode=1998RScI...69.3268L }}</ref><ref name="real2019">{{cite journal |last1=Lapshin |first1=Rostislav V. |title=Drift-insensitive distributed calibration of probe microscope scanner in nanometer range: Real mode |journal=Applied Surface Science |date=March 2019 |volume=470 |pages=1122–1129 |doi=10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.149 |arxiv=1501.06679 |bibcode=2019ApSS..470.1122L }}</ref>

===Electrodes===
Graphite [[electrode]]s carry the electricity that melts [[scrap iron]] and steel, and sometimes [[direct-reduced iron]] (DRI), in [[electric arc furnace]]s, which are the vast majority of [[steel furnace]]s. They are made from [[petroleum coke]] after it is mixed with [[coal tar pitch]]. They are extruded and shaped, then baked to [[carbonize]] the [[binder (material)|binder]] (pitch). This is finally graphitized by heating it to temperatures approaching {{cvt|3000|C|F}}, at which the carbon atoms arrange into graphite. They can vary in size up to {{cvt|3.5|m|0}} long and {{cvt|75|cm|0}} in diameter. An increasing proportion{{as of?|date=September 2023}} of global [[steel]] is made using electric arc furnaces, and the electric arc furnace itself is becoming more efficient, making more steel per tonne of electrode. An estimate based on [[USGS]] data indicates that graphite electrode consumption was {{cvt|197000|MT|ST|abbr=off}} in 2005.<ref name=usgs/>

Electrolytic [[aluminium smelting]] also uses graphitic carbon electrodes. On a much smaller scale, synthetic graphite electrodes are used in [[electrical discharge machining]] (EDM), commonly to make [[injection mold]]s for [[plastic]]s.<ref name="Pierson 1993 p. ">{{cite book | last=Pierson | first=Hugh O. | title=Handbook of Carbon, Graphite, Diamonds and Fullerenes: Properties, Processing and Applications | publisher=Noyes Publications | date=1993 | isbn=0-8155-1339-9 | ol=8048799M }}</ref>

===Powder and scrap===
The powder is made by heating powdered [[petroleum coke]] above the temperature of graphitization, sometimes with minor modifications. The graphite scrap comes from pieces of unusable electrode material (in the manufacturing stage or after use) and lathe turnings, usually after crushing and sizing. Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in steel (competing with natural graphite), with some used in batteries and brake linings. According to the [[United States Geographical Survey]], US synthetic graphite powder and scrap production were {{cvt|95000|MT}} in 2001 (latest data).<ref name=usgs/>

It is possible to create battery-grade graphite by recycling the numerous fines from battery production. The process involves spray drying the fines over petroleum pitch with a binder and cross-linking agent, then drying them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abrego-Martinez |first1=Juan Carlos |last2=Wang |first2=Youling |last3=Vanpeene |first3=Victor |last4=Roué |first4=Lionel |date=2023-06-05 |title=From waste graphite fines to revalorized anode material for Li-ion batteries |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0008622323002397 |journal=Carbon |volume=209 |pages=118004 |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2023.118004 |bibcode=2023Carbo.20918004A |issn=0008-6223}}</ref>

===Neutron moderator===
{{main|Nuclear graphite}}
Special grades of synthetic graphite, such as Gilsocarbon,<ref name="arregui17">{{cite journal |last1=Arregui-Mena |first1=José David |last2=Bodel |first2=William |last3=Worth |first3=Robert N. |last4=Margetts |first4=Lee |last5=Mummery |first5=Paul M. |title=Spatial variability in the mechanical properties of Gilsocarbon |journal=Carbon |date=December 2016 |volume=110 |pages=497–517 |doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2016.09.051 |bibcode=2016Carbo.110..497A |url=https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/47000433/47000378.Spatial_variability_in_the_mechanical_properties_of_Gilsocarbon_manuscript.pdf }}</ref><ref name="arregui18">{{cite journal |last1=Arregui-Mena |first1=José David |last2=Edmondson |first2=Philip D. |last3=Margetts |first3=Lee |last4=Griffiths |first4=D.V. |last5=Windes |first5=William E. |last6=Carroll |first6=Mark |last7=Mummery |first7=Paul M. |title=Characterisation of the spatial variability of material properties of Gilsocarbon and NBG-18 using random fields |journal=Journal of Nuclear Materials |date=December 2018 |volume=511 |pages=91–108 |doi=10.1016/j.jnucmat.2018.09.008 |bibcode=2018JNuM..511...91A }}</ref> also find use as a matrix and [[neutron moderator]] within [[nuclear reactor]]s. Its low [[neutron cross-section]] also recommends it for use in proposed [[fusion reactor]]s. Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing materials such as [[boron]], widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition systems – this caused the failure of the Germans' [[World War II]] graphite-based nuclear reactors. Since they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more expensive [[heavy water]] moderators. Graphite used for nuclear reactors is often referred to as [[nuclear graphite]]. Herbert G. McPherson, a Berkeley trained physicist at  National Carbon, a division of Union Carbide, was key in confirming a conjecture of Leo Szilard that boron impurities even in "pure" graphite were responsible for a neutron absorption cross-section in graphite that compromised U-235 chain reactions. McPherson was aware of the presence of impurities in graphite because, with the use of Technicolor in cinematography, the spectra of graphite electrode arcs used in movie projectors required impurities to enhance emission of light in the red region to display warmer skin tones on the screen. Thus, had it not been for color movies, chances are that the first sustained natural U chain reaction would have required a heavy water moderated reactor.<ref name="Figure11" >{{cite book | last = Weinberg | first = Alvin M. | title = The First Nuclear Era| publisher = American Institute of Physics | place = New York, N.Y.|year = 1994 |at=Figure 11| isbn =  978-1563963582}}</ref>

===Other uses===
[[carbon (fiber)|Graphite (carbon) fiber]] and [[carbon nanotube]]s are also used in [[carbon fiber reinforced plastic]]s, and in heat-resistant composites such as [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] (RCC). Commercial structures made from carbon fiber graphite composites include [[fishing rod]]s, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, sports car body panels, the fuselage of the [[Boeing 787 Dreamliner]] and [[Pool (cue sports)|pool]] [[cue sticks]] and have been successfully employed in [[reinforced concrete]]. The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey [[cast iron]] are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. In this context, the term "(100%) graphite" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and [[resin]], while the term "composite" is used for [[composite materials]] with additional ingredients.<ref>Cooper, Jeff. [http://tennis.about.com/od/tennisracquetsfaq/f/faqracquets42.htm What is the best material for a tennis racquet?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707075415/http://tennis.about.com/od/tennisracquetsfaq/f/faqracquets42.htm |date=2011-07-07 }}. tennis.about.com</ref>

Modern [[smokeless powder]] is coated in graphite to prevent the buildup of [[static charge]].

Graphite has been used in at least three [[radar absorbent material]]s. It was mixed with rubber in Sumpf and Schornsteinfeger, which were used on [[U-boat]] [[Submarine snorkel|snorkels]] to reduce their [[radar cross section]]. It was also used in tiles on early [[F-117 Nighthawk]] stealth strike fighters.

Graphite composites are used as absorber for high-energy particles, for example in the [[Large Hadron Collider]] beam dump.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200712/protecting_the_lhc.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910023817/http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/sites/default/files/legacy/pdfs/200712/protecting_the_lhc.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-10 |url-status=live|title=Protecting the LHC from itself|last=Yurkewicz|first=Katie|website=Symmetry Magazine}}</ref>

Glassworking tools are often made from graphite since it will not stick to hot molten glass, unlike metal tools and moulds which require coatings or lubricants, which are themselves often graphite-based. [[Glass production|Automated glassworking]] machines make significant use of graphite for handling the molten glass and freshly formed items.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Olmec Advanced Materials |title=How graphite is used in the glass and fibreglass industries |url=https://www.olmec.co.uk/graphite_and_carbon_use_in_glass_ceramics_industry.htm |date=2019 |access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-18 |title=Breaking the Mold |url=https://www.lubesngreases.com/magazine/22_11/breaking-the-mold/ |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=Lubes'N'Greases |language=en-US}}</ref>