Editing Ukrainian language (section)

==Language structure==
: ''Cyrillic letters in this article are [[Romanization of Ukrainian|romanized]] using [[Romanization of Ukrainian#Scientific transliteration|scientific transliteration]].''

===Grammar===
{{Further|Ukrainian grammar}}

Ukrainian is a [[fusional language|fusional]], [[Nominative–accusative alignment|nominative–accusative]], [[verb framing|satellite-framed]] language. It exhibits [[T–V distinction]], and is [[null-subject language|null-subject]]. The canonical word order of Ukrainian is [[subject–verb–object|SVO]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wals.info/refdb/record/Stechishin-1958 |title=Stechishin-1958 |publisher=Wals.info |access-date=2012-05-22 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011112132/http://wals.info/refdb/record/Stechishin-1958 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other [[word order]]s are common due to the free word order enabled by Ukrainian's [[inflection]]al system.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

Nouns have one of 3 [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, neuter; nouns [[declension|decline]] for:{{cn|date=June 2024}}
* 7 [[grammatical cases|cases]]: [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]], [[locative case|locative]], [[vocative]];
* 2 [[grammatical number|numbers]]: [[grammatical number#singular vs plural|singular]], [[plural]].

[[Adjective]]s [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in gender, [[grammatical case|case]], and [[grammatical number|number]].{{cn|date=June 2024}}

Verbs [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugate]] for:{{cn|date=June 2024}}
* 4 [[grammatical tense|tenses]]: [[past tense|past]], [[pluperfect]]<!-- According to the wording of the Ukrainian orthography (2019 edition), the Ukrainian language has a past tense (минулий час) and a long past tense (давноминулий час). It is determined that these are two different times. -->, [[present tense|present]], [[future tense|future]];
* 2 [[grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]], [[mediopassive voice|mediopassive]];
* 3 [[grammatical person|persons]]: first, second, third;
* 2 [[grammatical number|numbers]]: [[grammatical number#singular vs plural|singular]], [[plural]].

Ukrainian verbs come in [[Grammatical aspect in Slavic languages|aspect pairs]]: [[perfective aspect|perfective]], and [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]]. Pairs are usually formed by a [[prepositional]] prefix and occasionally a [[apophony|root change]]. The [[past tense]] agrees with its [[subject (grammar)|subject]] in number and gender (but ''not'' [[Grammatical person|person]]), having developed from the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] [[participle]].{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

The Old East Slavic and Russian ''o'' in syllables ending in a consonant, often correspond to a Ukrainian ''i'', as in ''pod'' → ''pid'' (під, 'under'). Thus, in the declension of nouns, the ''o'' can re-appear when it is no longer located in a closed syllable, such as ''rik'' (рік, 'year') ([[nominative case|nom]]): ''rotsi'' ([[locative case|loc]]) (році). Similarly, some words can have ''і'' in some cases when most of the cases have ''o'', for example ''слово'' (nominative singular), ''слова'' (nominative plural) but ''слiв'' (genitive plural).{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Ukrainian case endings are somewhat different from Old East Slavic, and the vocabulary includes a large overlay of Polish terminology. Russian ''na pervom etaže'' 'on the first floor' is in the locative (prepositional) case. The Ukrainian corresponding expression is ''na peršomu poversi'' (на першому поверсі). ''-omu'' is the standard locative (prepositional) ending, but variants in ''-im'' are common in dialect and poetry, and allowed by the standards bodies. The ''kh'' of Ukrainian ''poverkh'' (поверх) has mutated into ''s'' under the influence of the soft vowel ''i'' (''k'' is similarly mutable into ''c'' in final positions).{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

===Phonology===
{{Further|Ukrainian phonology}}

[[File:Emma Andijewska, Vidsvity hrozy.ogg|thumb|The poem "Gleams of Thunderstorm" by [[Emma Andijewska]] read in Ukrainian]]

The Ukrainian language has six vowels, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, {{IPA|/a/}}.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

A number of the consonants come in three forms: hard, soft ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]]) and [[geminate consonant|long]], for example, {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/lʲ/}}, and {{IPA|/lː/}} or {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/nʲ/}}, and {{IPA|/nː/}}.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

The letter {{angle bracket|г}} represents the [[voiced glottal fricative]] {{IPA|/ɦ/}}, often transliterated as Latin ''h''. It is the [[Voiced consonant|voiced]] equivalent of English {{IPA|/h/}}. Russian speakers from Ukraine often use the soft Ukrainian {{IPA|/ɦ/}} in place of Russian {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, which comes from northern dialects of Old East Slavic. The Ukrainian alphabet has the additional letter {{angle bracket|[[ґ]]}} for {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, which appears in a few native words such as {{Lang|uk|ґринджоли}}  ''gryndžoly'' 'sleigh' and {{Lang|uk|ґудзик}} ''gudzyk'' 'button'. However, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} appears almost exclusively in [[loan words]], and is usually simply written {{angle bracket|г}}. For example, loanwords from English on public signs usually use {{angle bracket|г}} for both English ''g'' and ''h''.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

Another phonetic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages is the pronunciation of Cyrillic {{angle bracket|[[в]]}} ''v/w''. While in standard Russian it represents {{IPA|/v/}}, in many Ukrainian dialects it denotes {{IPA|/w/}} (following a vowel and preceding a consonant (cluster), either within a word or at a word boundary, it denotes the allophone {{IPA|[u̯]}}, and like the off-glide in the English words "flow" and "cow", it forms a [[diphthong]] with the preceding vowel). Native Russian speakers will pronounce the Ukrainian {{angle bracket|в}} as {{IPA|[v]}}, which is one way to tell the two groups apart. As with {{angle bracket|г}} above, Ukrainians use {{angle bracket|в}} to render both English ''v'' and ''w''; Russians occasionally use {{angle bracket|у}} for ''w'' instead.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

Unlike Russian and most other modern Slavic languages, Ukrainian does not have [[final devoicing]].{{cn|date=June 2024}}

===Alphabet===
{{Main|Ukrainian alphabet}}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; font-family:serif; text-align: center; font-size: 120%"
|+ The Ukrainian alphabet
|-
| style="width:2.5em;" | А а 
| style="width:2.5em;" | Б б 
| style="width:2.5em;" | В в 
| style="width:2.5em;" | Г г 
| style="width:2.5em;" | Ґ ґ 
| style="width:2.5em;" | Д д 
| style="width:2.5em;" | Е е 
| style="width:2.5em;" | Є є 
| style="width:2.5em;" | Ж ж 
| style="width:2.5em;" | З з 
| style="width:2.5em;" | И и
|-
| І і || Ї ї || Й й || К к || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || П п || Р р || С с
|-
| Т т || У у || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Щ щ || Ь ь || Ю ю || Я я
|}

Ukrainian is written in a version of [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], consisting of 33 letters, representing 38 [[phoneme]]s; an apostrophe is also used.  Ukrainian orthography is based on the phonemic principle, with one letter generally corresponding to one phoneme, although there are a number of exceptions. The orthography also has cases where the semantic, historical, and morphological principles are applied.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

The modern Ukrainian alphabet is the result of a number of proposed alphabetic reforms from the 19th and early 20th centuries, in Ukraine under the Russian Empire, in Austrian Galicia, and later in Soviet Ukraine. A unified Ukrainian alphabet (the ''[[Ukrainian orthography of 1928|Skrypnykivka]]'', after [[Mykola Skrypnyk]]) was officially established at a 1927 international Orthographic Conference in [[Kharkiv]], during the period of [[Ukrainization]] in Soviet Ukraine.  But the policy was reversed in the 1930s, and the Soviet Ukrainian orthography diverged from that used by the [[Ukrainian diaspora|diaspora]]. The Ukrainian letter [[Ghe with upturn|ge]] ''ґ'' was banned in the Soviet Union from 1933 until the period of Glasnost in 1990.<ref>Magocsi 1996, pp 567, 570–71.</ref>

The letter щ represents two consonants {{IPA|[ʃt͡ʃ]}}. The combination of {{IPA|[j]}} with some of the vowels is also represented by a single letter ({{IPA|[ja]}} = я, {{IPA|[je]}} = є, {{IPA|[ji]}} or {{IPA|[jı̽]}} = ї, {{IPA|[ju]}} = ю), while {{IPA|[jɔ]}} = йо and the rare regional {{IPA|[jɨ]}} = йи are written using two letters. These [[iotated]] vowel letters and a special [[soft sign]] change a preceding consonant from hard to soft. An [[apostrophe]] is used to indicate the hardness of the sound in the cases when normally the vowel would change the consonant to soft; in other words, it functions like the [[yer]] in the Russian alphabet.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

A consonant letter is doubled to indicate that the sound is doubled, or long.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

The phonemes {{IPA|[d͡z]}} and {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} do not have dedicated letters in the alphabet and are rendered with the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] дз and дж, respectively. {{IPA|[d͡z]}} is equivalent to English ''ds'' in ''pods'', {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} is equivalent to ''j'' in ''jump''.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

As in Russian, the [[acute accent]] may be used to denote vowel stress.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

====Transliteration====
{{main|Romanization of Ukrainian}}

{{see also|Drahomanivka|Ukrainian Latin alphabet}}

===Orthography===
{{main|Ukrainian orthography}}{{see also|Ukrainian orthography of 2019}}
[[File:KB_Ukrainian.svg|thumb|A Ukrainian keyboard layout]]
Spelling search,{{clarify|date=November 2022}} which began in the late 18th century with the emergence of modern literary language, led to the emergence of several spelling options. In particular, there was the spelling system of Oleksii Pavlovskyi, the [[Shashkevychivka|spelling version of "Mermaid of the Dniester"]] (1837), Kulishivka (P. Kulish's spelling system), [[Drahomanivka]] (produced in Kyiv in the 1870s by a group of cultural figures led by linguist P. Zhytetskyi, which included and M. Drahomanov), [[Zhelekhivka]] (system of Yevhen Zhelekhovskyi (1886), enshrined in the ''Ruthenian Grammar'' by Smal-Stotskyi and [[Theodor Gartner|Theodore Gartner]] 1893).{{cn|date=June 2024}}

[[Borys Grinchenko|Borys Hrinchenko]] used some corrections in the fundamental four-volume ''Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language'' (1907–1909). Most of the spelling rules (practically based on phonetics – "write as you hear") used in Hrinchenko's dictionary are still valid. Hrinchenko's work became an informal spelling and model for Ukrainian writers and publications from 1907 until the creation of the first official Ukrainian spelling in 1918.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

On 17 January 1918, the [[Central Council of Ukraine|Central Rada of Ukraine]] issued the "Main Rules of Ukrainian orthography", which, however, did not cover the entire scope of the language. On 17 May 1919, the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences approved the "Main Rules of Ukrainian Orthography", which became the basis for all subsequent revisions and amendments.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

On 23 July 1925, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR decided to organize a State Commission for the Organization of Ukrainian Spelling (State Spelling Commission). It included more than 20 academics from the USSR, who also expressed a desire to invite representatives of Western Ukraine: Smal-Stotskyi, [[Volodymyr Hnatiuk]] and Vasyl Simovych.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

After almost a year of work in April 1926, the "Project of Ukrainian Spelling" was published to acquaint the general public with the new system. After several months of discussion and consideration of the project at the All-Ukrainian Spelling Conference (26 May – 6 June 1927), the Ukrainian orthography of 1928 was adopted in accordance with the RNC resolution of 6 September 1928. It went down in history as "Kharkiv" or "Skrypnik orthography" – from the place of creation, or from the surname of Skrypnyk.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

In 1929, Hryhorii Holoskevych published the ''Ukrainian Spelling Dictionary'' (about 40,000 words), agreed with the full spelling produced by the State Spelling Commission and approved by the People's Commissar for Education (6 September 1928).<ref>[http://www.r2u.org.ua/data/Правописний%20словник%20%281929%29.pdf Голоскевич Григорій. ''Правописний словник''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222225840/http://r2u.org.ua/data/Правописний%20словник%20(1929).pdf|date=22 December 2010}} (за нормами Українського правопису Всеукраїнської Академії Наук, Харків, 1929&nbsp;р.)</ref>

In 1933, a spelling commission headed by Andrii Khvylia branded the Ukrainian orthography of 1928 as "nationalist", immediately stopped publishing any dictionaries, and without any discussion, in a very short time (five months), created a [[Ukrainian orthography of 1933|new spelling]] that unified as never before the Ukrainian and Russian languages. The letter ґ was removed from the alphabet, and Ukrainian scientific terminology was revised and harmonized with Russian-Ukrainian dictionaries (the Institute of Ukrainian Scientific Language was abolished in 1930). This version of the spelling was approved by the resolution of the People's Commissar of Education of the USSR of 5 September 1933.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

Some minor changes were made in the spelling of 1946 and 1959 (published the following year). It was connected with the document "The rules of Russian spelling and punctuation", published in 1956. From 1960 until 1990, the 1960 edition was the official standard.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

After the beginning of "perestroika", the issue of improving Ukrainian spelling became relevant again: the editing of the spelling code was started by the Orthographic Commission at the LMM of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The project was also discussed in the newly established Ukrainian Language Society. T. Shevchenko (headed by [[Dmytro Pavlychko]]). The new version was approved on 14 November 1989, and published in 1990. The main achievements were the restoration of the letter ґ and the [[Vocative case|accusative case]] (in Soviet times it was optional and was called the ''accusative form'').{{cn|date=June 2024}}

Today, despite the existence of the official spelling of the Ukrainian language, it is not the only spelling standard in use. Even in Ukraine itself, many publishers and publications use other versions of the spelling, which either tend to "skrypnykivka", or else differ from the official rules of transmission of words of foreign origin.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

On 22 May 2019, the [[Government of Ukraine|Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine]] approved a [[Ukrainian orthography of 2019|new version of the orthography]] prepared by the Ukrainian National Commission on Spelling. The new edition brought to life some features of orthography in 1928, which were part of the Ukrainian orthographic tradition. At the same time, the commission was guided by the understanding that the language practice of Ukrainians in the second half of the 20th to the beginning of the 21st century has already become part of the Ukrainian orthographic tradition.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Ministry of Education and Science explained why they changed the Ukrainian spelling. Law and Business|url=https://zib.com.ua/ua/print/140751-u_mon_poyasnili_navischo_minyali_ukrainskiy_pravopis.html|website=zib.com.ua|accessdate=2021-04-06|archive-date=10 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410215126/https://zib.com.ua/ua/print/140751-u_mon_poyasnili_navischo_minyali_ukrainskiy_pravopis.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Vocabulary===
''The Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language'', in 11 volumes, contains 253,000 entries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/velykyislovnyk|title=Великий тлумачний словник сучасної української мови|year=2005|access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref> Lexical card catalog of the Ukrainian Institute of Language Studies has six million cards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.nas.gov.ua/institutes/ium/lb/Documents/LB-10.pdf|title=Лексикографічний Бюлетень|year=2004|access-date=27 December 2014|archive-date=27 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227172924/http://www1.nas.gov.ua/institutes/ium/lb/Documents/LB-10.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> As mentioned at the top of the article, Ukrainian is most closely related lexically to Belarusian, and is also closer to Polish than to Russian (for example, можливість, ''mozhlyvist{{'}}'', "possibility", and Polish ''możliwość'', but Russian возможность, ''vozmozhnost{{softsign}}'').{{cn|date=June 2024}}

===False cognates with Russian===
{{see also|Surzhyk}}
The standard Ukrainian language which is based on the Kyiv–Poltava dialect has a plethora of [[false friend]]s with the standard Russian language which is based on the dialect of Moscow. Many people intentionally do or do not use them, causing their language shift into what is known as [[Surzhyk]], where the meaning of some words mimicking Russian could be understood out of context rather than their literal meaning in Ukrainian.{{cn|date=June 2024}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ False friend samples
|-
! English 
! Ukrainian 
! Surzhyk
! Russian
|-
| to cancel 
| скасовувати<br />''skasovuvaty''
| style="background:#FDF5E6"| відміняти<br />''vidminiaty''
| style="background:#E6EAFF"| отменять<br />''otmenyat{{'}}''
|-
| to conjugate 
| style="background:#D4F7D4"| відміняти<br />''vidminiaty''
| спрягати<br />''spriahaty''
| спрягать<br />''spryagat{{'}}''
|-
| gentle 
| лагідний<br />''lahidnyi''
| style="background:#FDF5E6"| ласкавий<br />''laskavyi''
| style="background:#E6EAFF"| ласковый<br />''laskovyy''
|-
| kind 
| style="background:#D4F7D4"| ласкавий<br />''laskavyi''
| добродушний<br />''dobrodushnyi''
| добродушный<br />''dobrodushnyy''
|}