Editing Sushi (section)

==Health risks==
{{See also|Fish diseases and parasites}}
Potential chemical and biological hazards in sushi include environmental contaminants, [[pathogen]]s, and toxins.

Large marine [[apex predator]]s such as [[tuna]] (especially [[Pacific bluefin tuna|bluefin]]) can harbor high levels of [[methylmercury]], one of many toxins of [[marine pollution]]. Frequent or significantly large consumption of methylmercury can lead to developmental defects when consumed by certain higher-risk groups, including women who are pregnant or may become pregnant, nursing mothers, and young children.<ref>{{cite web | access-date = 2012-09-18 | date = 2004-03-01 | url = https://www.fda.gov/food/foodsafety/product-specificinformation/seafood/foodbornepathogenscontaminants/methylmercury/ucm115662.htm | title = Methylmercury: What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]] | archive-date = 2013-03-17 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130317130031/http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-SpecificInformation/Seafood/FoodbornePathogensContaminants/Methylmercury/ucm115662.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> A 2021 study in [[Catalonia]], Spain reported that the estimated exposure to methylmercury in sushi consumption by adolescents exceeded the tolerable daily intake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=González |first1=N |last2=Correig |first2=E |last3=Marmelo |first3=I |last4=Marques |first4=A |last5=la Cour |first5=R |last6=Sloth |first6=JJ |last7=Nadal |first7=M |last8=Marquès |first8=M |last9=Domingo |first9=JL |title=Dietary exposure to potentially toxic elements through sushi consumption in Catalonia, Spain. |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |date=July 2021 |volume=153 |pages=112285 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2021.112285 |pmid=34023460|s2cid=235168607 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

A 2011 article reported approximately 18 million people infected with fish-borne [[Trematoda|flukes]] worldwide.<ref name="Zoonoses and Public Health">{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=J.L.|last2=Anderson|first2=B.|last3=Schulkin|first3=J.|last4=Parise|first4=M. E.|last5=Eberhard|first5=M. L.|date=2011-03-01|title=Sushi in Pregnancy, Parasitic Diseases – Obstetrician Survey|journal=Zoonoses and Public Health|language=en|volume=58|issue=2|pages=119–125|doi=10.1111/j.1863-2378.2009.01310.x|pmid=20042060|s2cid=38590733|issn=1863-2378|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230788|access-date=2019-09-13|archive-date=2020-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106152834/https://zenodo.org/record/1230788|url-status=live}}</ref> Such an infection can be dangerous for expecting mothers due to the health risks that medical interventions or treatment measures may pose on the developing fetus.<ref name="Zoonoses and Public Health" /> Parasitic infections can have a wide range of health impacts, including bowel obstruction, anemia, liver disease, and more.<ref name="Zoonoses and Public Health" /> These illnesses' impact can pose health concerns for the expecting mother and baby.<ref name="Zoonoses and Public Health" />

[[Sashimi]] or other types of sushi containing raw fish present a risk of infection by three main types of [[parasite]]s:
* ''[[Clonorchis sinensis]]'', a [[Trematoda|fluke]] which can cause [[clonorchiasis]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/msds34e-eng.php | publisher = [[Public Health Agency of Canada]] | title = Clonorchis sinensis – Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) | access-date = 2012-09-18 | date = 2011-02-18 | archive-date = 2012-09-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120914172936/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/msds34e-eng.php | url-status = live }}</ref>
* ''[[Anisakis]]'', a [[Nematode|roundworm]] which can cause [[Anisakiasis#Anisakiasis|anisakiasis]]<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/anisakiasis/ | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] | date = 2010-11-02 | access-date = 2012-09-18 | title = Parasites – Anisakiasis | archive-date = 2012-09-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120925084430/http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/anisakiasis/ | url-status = live }}</ref>
* ''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'', a [[Cestoda|tapeworm]] which can cause [[diphyllobothriasis]]<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001375.htm | website = [[MedlinePlus]] | title = Fish tapeworm | last = Dugdale | first = DC | date = 2011-08-24 | access-date = 2012-09-18 | archive-date = 2016-07-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160704213258/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001375.htm | url-status = live }}</ref>

For these reasons, EU regulations forbid using raw fish that had not previously been frozen. It must be frozen at temperatures below {{cvt|-20|°C|°F}} in all product parts for no less than 24 hours.<ref name="EU_rules">{{cite journal | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2004:139:0055:0205:EN:PDF | format = PDF | title = Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 of The European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 laying down specific hygiene rules for on the hygiene of foodstuffs | date = 2004-04-30 | volume = 139 | issue = 55 | page = 133 | journal = Official Journal of the European Union | author = European Parliament | access-date = 2010-07-09 | archive-date = 2012-04-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120420190436/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2004:139:0055:0205:EN:PDF | url-status = live }}</ref> Fish for sushi may be [[Flash freezing|flash frozen]] on fishing boats and by suppliers to temperatures as low as {{cvt|−60|°C}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Issenberg|first=Sasha|title=The sushi economy: globalization and the making of a modern delicacy|year=2008|publisher=Gotham|location=New York|isbn=978-1592403639}}</ref> Super-freezing destroys parasites, and also prevents oxidation of the blood in tuna flesh that causes discoloration at temperatures above {{cvt|−20|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web|last=Macfarlane|first=Alex|title=The Truth About Sushi Fish|url=http://kazari.co.uk/blogs/everything-sushi/6899428-the-truth-about-sushi-fish|work=Everything Sushi Blog Interview|access-date=3 December 2012|archive-date=24 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424022217/http://kazari.co.uk/blogs/everything-sushi/6899428-the-truth-about-sushi-fish|url-status=live}}{{self-published source|date=December 2012}}</ref>

Calls for stricter analysis and regulation of seafood include improved product description. A 2021 DNA study in Italy found 30%–40% of fish species in sushi incorrectly described.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pappalardo |first1=AM |last2=Raffa |first2=A |last3=Calogero |first3=GS |last4=Ferrito |first4=V |title=Geographic Pattern of Sushi Product Misdescription in Italy-A Crosstalk between Citizen Science and DNA Barcoding |journal=Foods |date=2 April 2021 |volume=10 |issue=4 |page=756 |doi=10.3390/foods10040756 |pmid=33918119|pmc=8066630 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some forms of sushi, notably those containing the [[fugu]] pufferfish and some kinds of shellfish, can cause severe poisoning if not prepared properly. Fugu consumption, in particular, can be fatal. Fugu fish has a lethal dose of [[tetrodotoxin]] in its internal organs and, by law in many countries, must be prepared by a licensed fugu chef who has passed the prefectural examination in Japan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvgNKPxb43IC&q=fugu+license&pg=PA390|title=Molecules of death|first1=Rosemary H.|last1=Warin|first2=Glyn B.|last2=Steventon|first3=Steve C.|last3=Mitchell|publisher=Imperial College Press|year=2007|page=390|isbn=978-1-86094-814-5|access-date=2020-10-16|archive-date=2021-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617105648/https://books.google.com/books?id=FvgNKPxb43IC&q=fugu+license&pg=PA390|url-status=live}}</ref> Licensing involves a written test, a fish-identification test, and a practical test that involves preparing the fugu and separating out the poisonous organs; only about 35 percent of applicants pass.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/29/travel/one-man-s-fugu-is-another-s-poison.html|url-access=subscription| work=The New York Times | title=One Man's Fugu Is Another's Poison | date=1981-11-29 | access-date=2011-02-26 | archive-date=2015-05-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524085250/http://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/29/travel/one-man-s-fugu-is-another-s-poison.html | url-status=live }}</ref>