Editing Sumer (section)

===Economy and trade===
{{main|Economy of Sumer}}

[[File:Bill of sale Louvre AO3765.jpg|thumb|Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in [[Shuruppak]], Sumerian tablet, c. 2600 BC]]
Discoveries of [[obsidian]] from far-away locations in [[Anatolia]] and lapis lazuli from [[Badakhshan]] in northeastern [[Afghanistan]], beads from Dilmun (modern [[Bahrain]]), and several seals inscribed with the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley]] [[Indus script|script]] suggest a remarkably wide-ranging network of ancient trade centered on the [[Persian Gulf]]. For example, [[Imports to Ur]] came from many parts of the world. In particular, the metals of all types had to be imported.

The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' refers to trade with far lands for goods, such as wood, that were scarce in Mesopotamia. In particular, [[Cedrus libani|cedar]] from [[Lebanon]] was prized. The finding of resin in the tomb of Queen [[Puabi]] at Ur, indicates it was traded from as far away as [[Mozambique]].

The Sumerians used slaves, although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave women worked as [[weaving|weavers]], pressers, [[miller]]s, and [[porter (carrying)|porters]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}

Sumerian potters decorated pots with [[cedar oil]] [[paint]]s. The potters used a [[bow drill]] to produce the fire needed for baking the pottery. Sumerian [[masonry|masons]] and [[jewelry|jewelers]] knew and made use of [[alabaster]] ([[calcite]]), [[ivory]], [[iron]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[carnelian]], and lapis lazuli.<ref>Marian H. Feldman, ''Diplomacy by design: Luxury arts and an "international style" in the ancient Near East, 1400–1200 BC'', (Chicago, Illinois: University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;120–121.</ref>

====Trade with the Indus valley====
{{main|Indus-Mesopotamia relations}}
[[File:British Museum Middle East 14022019 Gold and carnelian beads 2600-2300 BC Royal cemetery of Ur (composite).jpg|thumb|The [[etched carnelian beads]] with white designs in this necklace from the [[Royal Cemetery of Ur]], dating to the [[First Dynasty of Ur]], are thought to have come from the Indus Valley. [[British Museum]].<ref name="BM Carnelian">British Museum notice: "Gold and carnelians beads. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. They were made by a technique developed by the Harappan civilization". [[:File:Ur Grave gold and carnelian beads necklace.jpg|Photograph of the necklace in question]].</ref>]]
[[File:Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg|thumb|left|The trade routes between Mesopotamia and the Indus would have been significantly shorter due to lower sea levels in the 3rd millennium BC.<ref name="JR12">{{cite book |last1=Reade |first1=Julian E. |title=The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978-1-4073-0312-3 |pages=12–14 |url=https://www.academia.edu/28245304 }}</ref>]]
Evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur can be found from around 2350 BC.<ref name="JR14">{{cite book |last1=Reade |first1=Julian E. |title=The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978-1-4073-0312-3 |pages=14–17 |url=https://www.academia.edu/28245304 }}</ref> Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly ''[[Turbinella pyrum]]'' and ''[[Pleuroploca trapezium]]'', have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia dating from around 2500–2000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gensheimer |first1=T. R. |title=The Role of shell in Mesopotamia : evidence for trade exchange with Oman and the Indus Valley |journal=Paléorient |date=1984 |volume=10 |pages=71–72 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1984.4350 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1984_num_10_1_4350}}</ref> [[Carnelian]] beads from the Indus were found in the Sumerian tombs of Ur, the [[Royal Cemetery at Ur]], dating to 2600–2450.<ref name="JMI">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-907-2 |pages=182–190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA189 }}</ref> In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the [[Harappa]]ns.<ref>For the etching technique, see {{cite journal |last1=MacKay |first1=Ernest |title=Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |issue=4 |date=1925 |pages=699 |jstor=25220818 }}</ref><ref name="BM Carnelian" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Guimet |first1=Musée |title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan |date=2016 |publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique |isbn=978-2-402-05246-7 |page=355 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355 |language=fr}}</ref> Lapis lazuli was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of the [[Naqada II]] period (c. 3200 BC). Lapis lazuli probably originated in northern [[Afghanistan]], as no other sources are known, and had to be transported across the [[Iranian plateau]] to Mesopotamia, and then Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Demand |first1=Nancy H. |title=The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-4234-5 |pages=71–72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSg-DOHzJMC&pg=PA71 }}</ref><ref name="CP">{{cite book |last1=Rowlands |first1=Michael J. |title=Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World |date=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-25103-7 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37 }}</ref>

Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in Ur, Babylon and Kish.<ref>For a full list of discoveries of Indus seals in Mesopotamia, see {{cite book |last1=Reade |first1=Julian |title=Indian Ocean In Antiquity |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-15531-4 |pages=148–152 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA148 }}</ref><ref>For another list of Mesopotamian finds of Indus seals: {{cite book |last1=Possehl |first1=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0172-2 |page=221 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA221 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal found in Ur BM 122187 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805148&partId=1&images=true |website=British Museum}}<br />{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 123208 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=804667&partId=1&museumno=1932.1008.178&page=2 |website=British Museum}}<br />{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 120228 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805338&partId=1&images=true |website=British Museum}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gadd |first1=G. J. |title=Seals of Ancient Indian style found at Ur |date=1958 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.33779/page/n11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JTvRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|first=Amanda H.|last=Podany|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-971829-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Aruz |first1=Joan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA246 |title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus |last2=Wallenfels |first2=Ronald |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58839-043-1 |page=246 |quote=Square-shaped Indus seals of fired steatite have been found at a few sites in Mesopotamia.}}</ref>

[[Gudea]], the ruler of the Neo-Summerian Empire at Lagash, is recorded as having imported "translucent carnelian" from [[Meluhha]], generally thought to be the Indus Valley area.<ref name="JMI"/> Various inscriptions also mention the presence of Meluhha traders and interpreters in Mesopotamia.<ref name="JMI"/> About twenty seals have been found from the Akkadian and Ur III sites, that have connections with Harappa and often use Harappan symbols or writing.<ref name="JMI"/>

The Indus Valley Civilization only flourished in its most developed form between 2400 and 1800 BC, but at the time of these exchanges, it was a much larger entity than the Mesopotamian civilization, covering an area of 1.2 million square kilometers with thousands of settlements, compared to an area of only about 65.000 square kilometers for the occupied area of Mesopotamia, while the largest cities were comparable in size at about 30–40,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cotterell |first1=Arthur |title=Asia: A Concise History |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-82959-2 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PT42 }}</ref>

====Money and credit====
Large institutions kept their accounts in barley and [[silver]], often with a fixed rate between them. The obligations, loans and prices in general were usually denominated in one of them. Many transactions involved debt, for example goods consigned to merchants by temple and beer advanced by "ale women".<ref name = debt>{{cite book |title= Debt and Economic Renewal in the Ancient Near East|editor=Michael Hudson and Marc Van De Mieroop|last= Hudson|first= Michael|year= 1998|publisher= CDL|location= Bethesda, Maryland|isbn= 978-1-883053-71-0|pages= 23–35}}</ref>

Commercial credit and agricultural consumer loans were the main types of loans. The trade credit was usually extended by temples in order to finance trade expeditions and was nominated in silver. The interest rate was set at 1/60 a month (one [[shekel]] per [[mina (unit)|mina]]) some time before 2000 BC and it remained at that level for about two thousand years.<ref name = debt/>
Rural loans commonly arose as a result of unpaid obligations due to an institution (such as a temple), in this case the arrears were considered to be lent to the debtor.<ref name = debt2>{{cite book |title= Debt and Economic Renewal in the Ancient Near East|editor=Michael Hudson and Marc Van De Mieroop|last= Van De Mieroop|first= Marc|year= 1998|publisher= CDL|location= Bethesda, Maryland|isbn= 978-1-883053-71-0|page= 63}}</ref> They were denominated in barley or other crops and the interest rate was typically much higher than for commercial loans and could amount to 1/3 to 1/2 of the loan principal.<ref name = debt/>

Periodically, rulers signed "clean slate" decrees that cancelled all the rural (but not commercial) debt and allowed bondservants to return to their homes. Customarily, rulers did it at the beginning of the first full year of their reign, but they could also be proclaimed at times of military conflict or crop failure. The first known ones were made by [[Enmetena]] and [[Urukagina]] of Lagash in 2400–2350 BC. According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened the fighting force, which could happen if peasants lost their subsistence land or became bondservants due to inability to repay their debt.<ref name = debt/>