Editing Russo-Japanese War (section)

== Peace and aftermath ==
=== Treaty of Portsmouth ===
{{Main|Treaty of Portsmouth}}
[[File:Treaty of Portsmouth.jpg|thumb|Negotiating the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905). From left to right: the Russians at far side of table are Korostovetz, Nabokov, [[Sergei Witte|Witte]], [[Roman Rosen|Rosen]], Plancon; and the Japanese at near side of table are [[Mineichirō Adachi|Adachi]], [[Ochiai Kentaro|Ochiai]], [[Komura Jutarō|Komura]], [[Takahira Kogoro|Takahira]], [[Aimaro Satō|Satō]]. The large conference table is today preserved at the Museum [[Meiji-mura]] in [[Inuyama, Aichi]] Prefecture, Japan.]]
Military leaders and senior tsarist officials agreed before the war that Russia was a much stronger nation and had little to fear from the Empire of Japan. The fanatical zeal of the Japanese infantrymen astonished the Russians, who were dismayed by the apathy, backwardness, and defeatism of their own soldiers.<ref>Donald P. Wright, "'Clouds Gathering on the Horizon': The Russian Army and the Preparation of the Imperial Population for War, 1906–1914", '' Journal of Military History'' 83#4 (Dec 2019 ) pp. 1133–1160, quoting pp. 1136–1137.</ref> Russian soldiers fought fiercely but this was contrasted by the cautiousness of their officers, who sometimes chose to retreat without a good reason, and the Russian commander Kuropatkin on two occasions prohibited his subordinates from counter-attacking the Japanese. In both of the major battles in the fall of 1904 ([[Battle of Liaoyang|Liaoyang]] and [[Battle of Shaho|Shaho]]), Kuropatkin ordered a withdrawal. As a result of this leadership the Russians were always reacting to the Japanese. After the loss of Russia's main supply base and headquarters at [[Battle of Mukden|Mukden]], Kuropatkin was relieved of command, and his replacement, [[Nikolai Linevich|Linevich]], planned on going on the offensive but peace talks began before then.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reese |first=Roger R. |title=The Imperial Russian Army in Peace, War, and Revolution, 1856-1917 |year=2019 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence |pages=192–193 |isbn= 978-0-7006-2860-5 }}</ref> The Russian mobilization was initially of older reservists, with less training (some having no experience with the Mosin-Nagant rifle) and no interest in the war in the Far East. It was not until after the Battle of Mukden that new recruits and younger reservists began arriving, and by the summer of 1905 the Russian army fielded almost one million well-equipped and -trained soldiers in the Far East against an exhausted Japanese army, but the naval defeat at Tsushima made negotiations more desired.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wildman |first=Allen K. |title=The End of the Russian Imperial Army: The Old Army and the Soldiers' Revolt (March-April 1917) |year=1980 |volume=I |isbn=978-1-4008-4771-6 |pages=45–46|publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>

The defeats of the Army and Navy shook Russian confidence. Throughout 1905, the Imperial Russian government was rocked by revolution. The population was against escalation of the war. The empire was certainly capable of sending more troops, but this would make little difference in the outcome due to the poor state of the economy, the embarrassing defeats of the Russian Army and Navy by the Japanese, and the relative unimportance to Russia of the disputed land, which made the war extremely unpopular.{{sfn|Connaughton|1988|pp=109, 342}}

[[File:Japan Russia Treaty of Peace 5 September 1905.jpg|thumb|Japan-Russia Treaty of Peace, 5 September 1905]]
Both sides accepted the offer of United States President Theodore Roosevelt to mediate. Meetings were held in [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]], with [[Sergei Witte]] leading the Russian delegation and [[Komura Jutarō|Baron Komura]] leading the Japanese delegation. The [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] was signed on 5 September 1905 at the [[Portsmouth Naval Shipyard]].{{sfn|Connaughton|1988|p=272}}<ref>{{cite news |date=17 October 1905 |title=Text of Treaty; Signed by the Emperor of Japan and Czar of Russia |newspaper=New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9902EFD61431E733A25754C1A9669D946497D6CF&scp=6&sq=order+of+meiji&st=p |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 February 2017 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304142228/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9902EFD61431E733A25754C1A9669D946497D6CF&scp=6&sq=order+of+meiji&st=p |url-status=live }}</ref> Witte became Russian Prime Minister the same year.

After courting the Japanese, Roosevelt decided to support the Tsar's refusal to pay indemnities, a move that policymakers in Tokyo interpreted as signifying that the United States had more than a passing interest in Asian affairs. Russia recognized Korea as part of the Japanese sphere of influence<ref name="SK">{{Cite book|title=Socialist Korea: A Case Study in the Strategy of Economic Development|last1=Brun|first1=Hellen|last2=Hersh|first2=Jacques|publisher=Monthly Review Press|year=1976|isbn=0-85345-386-1|location=New York and London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/socialistkoreaca0000brun/page/36 36]|url=https://archive.org/details/socialistkoreaca0000brun/page/36}}</ref> and agreed to evacuate Manchuria. Japan would annex Korea in 1910 ([[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910]]), with scant protest from other powers.<ref>See review (lay-summary) in {{harvnb|Steinberg|Menning|Schimmelpenninck van der Oye|Wolff|2005}}.</ref> From 1910 until the end of its rule of Korea in 1945, the Japanese adopted a strategy of using the Korean Peninsula as a gateway to the Asian continent and making Korea's economy subordinate to Japanese economic interests.<ref name="SK" />

Russia also signed over its 25-year leasehold rights to Port Arthur, including the naval base and the peninsula around it, and ceded the southern half of [[Sakhalin]] Island to Japan. Sakhalin would be taken back by the Soviet Union following the defeat of the Japanese in World War II.<ref>{{cite book |last=Trani |first=Eugene P. |year=1969 |title=The Treaty of Portsmouth: An Adventure in American Diplomacy |publisher=University of Kentucky Press |isbn=9780813111742 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ypluAAAAMAAJ |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029170923/https://books.google.com/books?id=ypluAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2018}}

Roosevelt earned the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his effort. [[George E. Mowry]] concludes that Roosevelt handled the arbitration well, doing an "excellent job of balancing Russian and Japanese power in the Orient, where the supremacy of either constituted a threat to growing America".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mowry |first=George E. |title=The First Roosevelt |journal=[[The American Mercury]] |date=November 1946 |issue=November 1946 |page=580 }}</ref> As Japan had won every major battle on land and sea and as the Japanese people, who had received news about victory after victory did not understand that the costs of the war had pushed their nation to the verge of bankruptcy, the Japanese public was enraged by the Treaty of Portsmouth as many Japanese had expected the war to end with Russia ceding the Russian Far East to Japan and for Russia to pay an indemnity.{{sfn|Gordon|2014}} The United States was widely blamed in Japan for the Treaty of Portsmouth with Roosevelt having allegedly "cheated" Japan out of its rightful claims at the peace conference. On 5 September 1905 the [[Hibiya incendiary incident]] – as the anti-American riots were euphemistically described – erupted in Tokyo and lasted for three days, forcing the government to declare martial law.{{sfn|Gordon|2014}}

The Treaty of Portsmouth overlooked [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro's]] participation in the war against Japan, leaving the two countries still technically belligerents until 2006, when the Japanese [[Junichiro Koizumi|prime minister]] dispatched the Vice-Minister of Foreign affairs ([[Akiko Yamanaka]]) with a personal letter from him for the [[Prime Minister of Montenegro]] formally ending the war.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Montenegro, Japan end 100 years' war {{!}} History News Network |url=https://hnn.us/roundup/entries/26860.html |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=hnn.us|date=16 June 2006 }}</ref>

=== Casualties ===
[[File:Forces returning 2.jpg|thumb|Japanese propaganda [[Woodblock printing in Japan|woodcut print]] showing Tsar Nicholas II waking from a nightmare of the battered and wounded Russian forces returning from battle. Artist [[Kobayashi Kiyochika]], 1904 or 1905.]]

Sources do not agree on a precise number of deaths from the war because of a lack of [[body count]]s for confirmation. The number of Japanese Army dead in combat or died of wounds is put at around 59,000 with around 27,000 additional casualties from disease, and between 6,000 and 12,000 wounded. Estimates of Russian Army dead range from around 34,000 to around 53,000 men with a further 9,000–19,000 dying of disease and around 75,000 captured. The total number of dead for both sides is generally stated as around 130,000 to 170,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c100k.htm#RJW|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls|website=necrometrics.com|access-date=17 October 2013|archive-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910100407/http://necrometrics.com/20c100k.htm#RJW|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the [[Siege of Port Arthur|siege of Port Arthur in 1905]], [[Nogi Maresuke|General Nogi Maresuke]], who led the Japanese army during the siege, felt so guilty about the loss of many Japanese soldiers that he wanted to commit [[Seppuku|ritual suicide]], but the Japanese [[Emperor Meiji]] refused to allow it; instead, Maresuke mentored the future [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]] and built hospitals. After Emperor Meiji died in 1912, Maresuke and his wife committed suicide, 7 years after the siege of Port Arthur.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Egorov |first=Boris |date=2019-02-08 |title=4 facts about the war in which Russia didn't win a single battle |url=https://www.rbth.com/history/329952-4-facts-about-japan-war |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=Russia Beyond |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Political consequences ===
[[File:Punch- Russian Prestige 1905.jpg|thumb|''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' cartoon, 1905; A cartoon in the British press of the times illustrating the Russian Empire's loss of prestige after the nation's defeat. The hour-glass represents Russia's prestige running out.]]

This was the first major military victory in the [[Modern history|modern era]] of an Asian power over a European nation. Russia's defeat was met with shock in the West and across the Far East. Japan's prestige rose greatly as it came to be seen as a modern nation. Concurrently, Russia lost virtually its entire Pacific and Baltic fleets, and also much international esteem. This was particularly true in the eyes of Germany and [[Austria-Hungary]] before World War I. Russia was France's and [[Serbia]]'s ally; its loss of prestige emboldened Germany in planning for war with France and supporting Austria-Hungary's war with Serbia.

==== Effects on Russia ====
The defeat of 1905 led in the short term to Russian military reforms that allowed it to face Germany in World War I.

Though there had been popular support for the war among the Russian public following the Japanese attack at Port Arthur in 1904, that popular support soon turned to discontent after suffering multiple defeats at the hands of the Japanese forces. For many Russians, the immediate shock of unexpected humiliation at the hands of Japan caused the conflict to be viewed as a metaphor for the shortcomings of the Romanov autocracy.<ref name="Oye2005_86">{{harvnb|Schimmelpenninck van der Oye|2005|p=86}}.</ref> This discontent added fuel to the simmering [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], an event Nicholas II had hoped to avoid by taking intransigent negotiating stances. To quell the uprising, Nicholas II issued the [[October Manifesto]], which included only limited reforms such as the Duma and failed to address the societal problems of Russia at the time.{{sfn|Warner|1974|pp=575–576}} Twelve years later, that discontent would boil over into the [[February Revolution]] of 1917.

In Poland, which Russia [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned in the late 18th century]], and where Russian rule already caused [[List of Polish uprisings|two major uprisings]], the population was so restless that an army of 250,000–300,000{{snd}}larger than the one facing the Japanese{{snd}}had to be stationed to put down [[Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907)|the unrest]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ascher |first=Abraham |year=1994 |title=The Revolution of 1905: Russia in Disarray |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-2327-3 |pages=157–158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9J9Dt6EQHs8C&q=Lodz+1905&pg=PA157 |access-date=20 November 2020 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829192905/https://books.google.com/books?id=9J9Dt6EQHs8C&q=Lodz+1905&pg=PA157 |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia had mobilized thousands of Polish reservists during the war with Japan, contributing to unrest. Contemporary reports found that some Poles preferred death over fighting the Japanese for Russia.<ref>{{Cite news |last=TIMES |first=Special Cable to THE NEW YORK |date=1904-12-18 |title=TERRIBLE SCENES IN POLAND.; Men Ordered to the War Kill Their Children -- Wives Commit Suicide. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1904/12/18/archives/terrible-scenes-in-poland-men-ordered-to-the-war-kill-their.html |access-date=2024-09-01 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Some political leaders of the Polish insurrection movement (in particular, [[Józef Piłsudski]]) sent emissaries to Japan to collaborate on sabotage and intelligence gathering within the Russian Empire and even plan a Japanese-aided uprising.<ref>{{cite book |last=Palasz-Rutkowska |first=Ewa |editor-last=Edström |editor-first=Bert |chapter=Major Fukushima Yasumasa and his Influence on the Japanese Perception of Poland at the Turn of the Century |year=2000 |title=The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions |publisher=Japan Library |isbn=1-873410-86-7 |pages=126–133 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltmXn9rUGD8C&q=Poles&pg=PA126 |access-date=20 November 2020 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829192909/https://books.google.com/books?id=ltmXn9rUGD8C&q=Poles&pg=PA126 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lerski |first=Jerzy J. |title=A Polish Chapter of the Russo-Japanese War |journal=[[Asiatic Society of Japan|Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan]] |series=Third series |volume=VII |date=November 1959 |pages=69–96 }}</ref>

==== Effects on Japan ====
{{Main|Taft–Katsura agreement|Franco-Japanese Treaty of 1907|Japan–Russia Secret Agreements}}
Japan had become the rising Asian power and had proven that its military could fight the major powers in Europe with success. Most Western powers were stunned that the Japanese not only prevailed but decisively defeated Russia. In the Russo-Japanese War, Japan had also portrayed a sense of readiness in taking a more active and leading role in Asian affairs, which in turn had led to widespread nationalism throughout the region.{{r|Oye2005_86}}

Although the war had ended in a victory for Japan, Japanese public opinion was shocked by the very restrained peace terms which were negotiated at the war's end.<ref name="NYT3Sep1905">{{cite news |date=3 September 1905 |title=Japan's Present Crisis and Her Constitution |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C01E5D8103AE733A25750C0A96F9C946497D6CF&scp=5&sq=order+of+meiji&st=p |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 February 2017 |archive-date=12 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412183024/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C01E5D8103AE733A25750C0A96F9C946497D6CF&scp=5&sq=order+of+meiji&st=p |url-status=live }}.</ref> Widespread discontent spread through the populace upon the announcement of the treaty terms, causing the [[Hibiya incendiary incident]]. Riots erupted in major cities in Japan following the incident, including demonstrations in front of the US Legation in Tokyo. Two specific requirements, expected after such a costly victory, were especially lacking: territorial gains and monetary reparations to Japan. The peace accord led to feelings of distrust, as the Japanese had intended to retain all of [[Sakhalin Island]] but were forced to settle for half of it after being pressured by the United States, with President Roosevelt opting to support Nicholas II's stance on not ceding territory or paying reparations. The Japanese had wanted reparations to help families recover from lost fathers and sons as well as heavy taxation by the government to finance the war.{{sfn|Connaughton|1988|p=342}}{{clarify|date=May 2017}} Without them, they were at a loss. The outcome of the [[Portsmouth Treaty|Portsmouth peace negotiations]], mediated by the U.S., was received by the general Japanese population with disbelief on September 5 and 6 when all the major newspapers reported the content of the signed treaty in lengthy editorials.

As a result, the wartime government, the [[First Katsura Cabinet]], which remained in power for the longest period (1,681 days) in the history of Japanese democracy to date, declared [[Martial Law|martial law]] to suppress the riots on September 6 (one day after the signing in Portsmouth). Martial law was lifted on November 29 after more than 2,000 people were arrested, but the Cabinet resigned on December 22 after ratifying the treaty on October 10, as if taking the responsibility for a lost war.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jacar.go.jp/english/nichiro/sumitsuin.htm|title=Privy Council minutes on ratification of the Russo-Japanese Peace Treaty|access-date=31 March 2022|archive-date=19 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119020617/https://www.jacar.go.jp/english/nichiro/sumitsuin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>