Editing Russia (section)

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Russia}}
{{multiple image
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| total_width       = 300
| align             = right
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| image1            = Владимир Путин (08-03-2024) (cropped) (higher res).jpg
| caption1          = [[Vladimir Putin]]<br /><small>[[President of the Russian Federation|President]]</small>
| image2            =  Mikhail Mishustin in January 2025 (cropped).png
| caption2          = [[Mikhail Mishustin]]<br /><small>[[Prime Minister of the Russian Federation|Prime Minister]]</small>
}}
[[File:Chart Constitution of Russia EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A chart of the political system in Russia]]
Russia, by constitution, is a [[symmetric federalism|symmetric federal]] republic with a [[semi-presidential system]], wherein [[President of Russia|the president]] is the [[head of state]],<ref name="(Article 80, § 1)">{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation |website=(Article 80, §&nbsp;1) |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416081229/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Prime Minister of Russia|prime minister]] is the [[head of government]].<ref name="cia"/>{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=383–428|loc=Chapter 7. Government and Politics}} It is structured as a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[representative democracy]],{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=383–428|loc=Chapter 7. Government and Politics}} with the federal government composed of three branches:<ref name="DeRouen-2005">{{cite book |first1=Karl R. |last1=DeRouen |first2=Uk |last2=Heo |title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies |url={{GBurl|id=wdeBgfmZI0cC|p=666}} |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-Clio |isbn=978-1-85109-781-4 |page=666}}</ref>
* Legislative: The [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly of Russia]], made up of the 450-member [[State Duma]] and the 170-member [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]],<ref name="DeRouen-2005"/> adopts [[federal law]], [[declaration of war|declares war]], approves treaties, has the [[power of the purse]] and the power of [[Impeachment in Russia|impeachment]] of the president.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|access-date=4 February 2022|website=www.constitution.ru|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074020/http://constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Executive: The president is the [[Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Armed Forces|commander-in-chief]] of the [[Russian Armed Forces|Armed Forces]], and appoints the [[Government of Russia]] (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.<ref name="(Article 80, § 1)"/> The president may issue [[Decree of the President of Russia|decrees of unlimited scope]], so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Remington |first1=Thomas F. |title=Presidential Decrees in Russia: A Comparative Perspective |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-04079-3 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22russia%2Bdecree%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bpresident%2Binpublisher:university%22&pg=PA48 |access-date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004180304/https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48&dq=%22russia+decree+of+the+president+inpublisher:university%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Judiciary of Russia|Judiciary]]: The [[Constitutional Court of Russia|Constitutional Court]], [[Supreme Court of Russia|Supreme Court]] and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,<ref name="DeRouen-2005"/> interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 7. Judicial Power {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|access-date=4 February 2022|website=www.constitution.ru|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025215135/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation |website=(Article 81, §&nbsp;3) |url=https://rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-federation-en/1680a1a237 |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202212008/https://rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-federation-en/1680a1a237 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|In 2020, [[2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia|constitutional amendments]] were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |title=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2020 |access-date=18 July 2021 |archive-date=13 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713115630/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). [[United Russia]] is the [[dominant-party system#Eurasia|dominant]] [[List of political parties in Russia|political party in Russia]], and has been described as "[[big tent]]" and the "[[party of power]]".<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Politics of Dominant Party Formation: United Russia and Russia's Governors |last=Reuter |first=Ora John |jstor=27808691 |volume=62 |number=2 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=293–327 |date=March 2010 |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]]|doi=10.1080/09668130903506847 |s2cid=153495141 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Konitzer|first1=Andrew|last2=Wegren|first2=Stephen K.|title=Federalism and Political Recentralization in the Russian Federation: United Russia as the Party of Power|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=36|number=4|year=2006|pages=503–522|journal=[[Publius (journal)|Publius]]|doi=10.1093/publius/pjl004|jstor=4624765}}</ref> 

Post-Soviet Russia was a [[flawed democracy]] during the [[presidency of Boris Yeltsin]].<ref name="Croissant">{{cite book |last1=Croissant |first1=Aurel |last2=Tomini |first2=Luca |title=The Routledge Handbook of Autocratization |date=14 May 2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-040-04018-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RAGEQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|page=223}} However, following the [[Russia under Vladimir Putin|presidencies of Vladimir Putin]] and [[Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev|Dmitry Medvedev]], it has experienced significant [[democratic backsliding]].<ref name="Croissant"/>{{rp|page=223}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |title=Russia and Europe: Building Bridges, Digging Trenches |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-99200-1 |editor1=Kjell Engelbrekt |pages= |editor2=Bertil Nygren |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813133217/https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kiyan|first=Olga|title=Russia & Democratic Backsliding: The Future of Putinism|date=9 April 2020|journal=[[Harvard International Review]]|publisher=[[Harvard International Relations Council]]|url=https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/|access-date=8 July 2022|archive-date=24 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224213448/https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/|url-status=live}}</ref> The political system evolved from [[electoral authoritarianism]] into a consolidated [[authoritarian regime]].<ref name="Croissant"/>{{rp|page=323}}<ref name="t305"/> Some political scientists have characterized Putin as the head of a [[dictatorship]],<ref name="Kuzio-2016">{{cite journal|last=Kuzio|first=Taras|title=Nationalism and authoritarianism in Russia|journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies|year=2016|volume=49|number=1|pages=1–11|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.002|jstor=48610429}}</ref><ref name="Krzywdzinski"/><ref>{{Cite report |last=Fischer |first=Sabine |date=2022 |title=Russia on the road to dictatorship: Internal political repercussions of the attack on Ukraine |journal=SWP Comment |doi=10.18449/2022C30 |url=https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753 |hdl=10419/256753 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911191555/https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753 |url-status=live }}</ref> or a personalist regime.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chapman |first1=Hannah S. |title=Shocks to the System: Electoral Manipulation, Protests and the Evolution of Political Trust in Russia |journal=Government and Opposition |date=29 October 2024 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1017/gov.2024.18 |quote=Authoritarian regimes, particularly personalist ones such as Russia, frequently justify their rule based on the views of the leading authority.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Özdamar |first1=Özgür |last2=Yanik |first2=Lerna K |title=Populist hyperpersonalization and politicization of foreign policy institutions |journal=International Affairs |date=9 September 2024 |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=1835–1856 |doi=10.1093/ia/iiae181 |issn=0020-5850|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="t305">{{cite web | last=Kallmer | first=Brent | title=The Putin Myth | website=[[Journal of Democracy]] - [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]| date=April 6, 2023 | url=https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-putin-myth/#f3-text | access-date=January 4, 2025}}</ref> Putin's second tenure as president has led to further autocratization,<ref name="Croissant"/>{{rp|page=512}}<ref name="Mamaev">{{cite book |last1=Mamaev |first1=Bogdan |title=The Evolution of Authoritarianism and Contentious Action in Russia |date=30 June 2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-56066-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXIMEQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|pages=80–81}} which has been the most significant since the Soviet era,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindstaedt |first1=Natasha |title=Russia's Descent into Totalitarianism |journal=Political Insight |date=1 June 2024 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1177/20419058241260782 |language=en |issn=2041-9058}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Karatnycky |first=Adrian |date=24 March 2024 |access-date=23 March 2025 |title=Russia Is Back to the Stalinist Future |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |quote=A recent study by exiled Russian journalists from Proekt Media used data to determine that Russia is more politically repressive today than the Soviet Union under all leaders since Joseph Stalin. |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/03/24/russia-putin-stalin-soviet-election-war-repression-political-prisoners/}}</ref> with some authors suggesting a regeneration of [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] elements.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kolesnikov |first1=Andrei |title=Putin's War Has Moved Russia From Authoritarianism to Hybrid Totalitarianism |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2022/04/putins-war-has-moved-russia-from-authoritarianism-to-hybrid-totalitarianism?lang=en |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindstaedt |first1=Natasha |title=Russia's Descent into Totalitarianism |journal=Political Insight |date=1 June 2024 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1177/20419058241260782 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/20419058241260782 |language=en |issn=2041-9058}}</ref> Putin's ruling policies are generally referred to as [[Putinism]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Brian D. Taylor |date=2018 |title=The Code of Putinism |publisher=Oxford University Press| pages=2–7 | isbn=978-0-19-086731-7 | oclc=1022076734}}</ref>

=== Political divisions ===
{{Main|Political divisions of Russia}}
Russia, by constitution, is a [[symmetric federalism|symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation]]. Unlike the Soviet [[Asymmetric federalism|asymmetric model]] of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but regions do not have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://base.garant.ru/12119810/|title=Постановление Конституционного Суда РФ от 07.06.2000 N 10-П "По делу о проверке конституционности отдельных положений Конституции Республики Алтай и Федерального закона "Об общих принципах организации законодательных (представительных) и исполнительных органов государственной власти субъектов Российской Федерации" &#124; ГАРАНТ|website=base.garant.ru|access-date=12 May 2023|archive-date=10 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410082832/https://base.garant.ru/12119810/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]]{{efn|Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the [[Republic of Crimea (Russia)|Republic of Crimea]] and the federal city of [[Sevastopol]] since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,<ref name="Pifer-2020"/> and territories set up following the [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts]] in 2022.|name=disputed}} have equal representation—two delegates each—in the [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]], the [[upper house]] of the Federal Assembly.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly |work=[[Constitution of Russia]] |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074020/http://constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> They do, however, differ in the degree of [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomy]] they enjoy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KARTASHKIN |first1=V.A. |last2=ABASHIDZE |first2=A.KH. |year=2004 |jstor=24675138 |title=Autonomy in the Russian Federation: Theory and Practice |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=10 |number=3 |pages=203–220 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|doi=10.1163/1571811031310738 }}</ref> The [[federal districts of Russia]] were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrov |first=Nikolai |title=Seven Faces of Putin's Russia: Federal Districts as the New Level of State–Territorial Composition |jstor=26298005 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |journal=[[Security Dialogue]] |volume=33 |number=1 |date=March 2002 |pages=73–91|doi=10.1177/0967010602033001006 |s2cid=153455573 }}</ref> Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Martin |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/569035/EPRS_IDA(2015)569035_EN.pdf |title=Russia's constitutional structure |journal=[[European Parliamentary Research Service]] |publisher=[[European Parliament]] |date=2015 |access-date=3 November 2021 |isbn=978-92-823-8022-2 |doi=10.2861/664907 |archive-date=26 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226005739/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/569035/EPRS_IDA(2015)569035_EN.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Map of federal subjects of Russia (2022), disputed Crimea and Donbass.svg|center|600px|frameless]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Federal subjects
! Governance
|-
| {{legend|#FFEC77|46&nbsp;[[oblasts of Russia|oblast]]s}}
| The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Henry E. |title=The Makeup and Breakup of Ethnofederal States: Why Russia Survives Where the USSR Fell |journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]] |pages=55–70 |volume=3 |number=1 |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[American Political Science Association]] |doi=10.1017/S153759270505005X |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3688110|s2cid=145259594 }}</ref>
|-
| {{legend|#00C160|22&nbsp;[[Republics of Russia|republics]]}}
| Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific [[Ethnic groups in Russia|ethnic minority]], and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Orttung |first1=Robert |last2=Lussier |first2=Danielle |last3=Paetskaya |first3=Anna |title=The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders |publisher=[[EastWest Institute]] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-7656-0559-7 |location=New York |pages=523–524}}</ref>
|-
| {{legend|#FF9400|9&nbsp;[[krais of Russia|krai]]s}}
| For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shabad |first=Theodore |title=Political-Administrative Divisions of the U.S.S.R., 1945 |journal=[[Geographical Review]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=36 |number=2 |pages=303–311 |date=April 1946 |doi=10.2307/210882 |jstor=210882|bibcode=1946GeoRv..36..303S }}</ref>
|-
| {{legend|#006989|4&nbsp;[[autonomous okrugs of Russia|autonomous okrugs]]}}
| Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sharafutdinova |first=Gulnaz |title=When Do Elites Compete? The Determinants of Political Competition in Russian Regions |pages=273–293 |volume=38 |number=3 |date=April 2006 |journal=[[Comparative Politics]] |publisher=Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, [[City University of New York]] |doi=10.2307/20433998 |jstor=20433998}}</ref>
|-
| {{legend|#FF0037|3&nbsp;[[federal cities of Russia|federal cities]]}}
| Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as [[Sevastopol]] in Russian-occupied Ukraine).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelesh |first1=Yulia V. |last2=Bessonova |first2=Elena A. |title=Digitalization management system of Russia's federal cities focused on prospective application throughout the country |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |url=https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2021/21/shsconf_icemt2021_05011.pdf |volume=110 |number=5011 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/202111005011 |date=11 June 2021 |page=05011 |s2cid=236655658 |access-date=24 January 2022 |archive-date=27 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127232543/https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2021/21/shsconf_icemt2021_05011.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{legend|#C300FF|1&nbsp;autonomous oblast}}
| The only autonomous oblast is the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Alessandro |first=Vitale |title=Ethnopolitics as Co-operation and Coexistence: The Case-Study of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Siberia |journal=Politeja |year=2015 |volume=12 |number=31/2 |pages=123–142 |jstor=24919780 |publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka |doi=10.12797/Politeja.12.2015.31_2.09|s2cid=132962208 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}}
[[File:2019 Foto de família dos Líderes do G20.jpg|thumb|Putin with G20 counterparts in [[Osaka]], 2019]]
Russia has the world's [[List of countries by number of diplomatic missions|sixth-largest diplomatic network]] {{as of|2024|lc=y}}. It maintains diplomatic relations with 187 [[member states of the United Nations|United Nations member states]], two [[List of states with limited recognition|partially-recognised state]]s,<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Peter N.|title=Russia's Tightening Abkhazian Stranglehold Threatens Western and Georgian Interests|date=15 January 2024|work=[[Harvard International Review]]|publisher=[[Harvard International Relations Council]]|access-date=1 March 2025|url=https://hir.harvard.edu/washington-must-not-idle-as-russia-tightens-its-abkhazian-stranglehold/}}</ref> and two [[Member states of the United Nations#Observers and non-members|United Nations observer states]], along with [[Russian embassies|143 embassies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/|title=
Lowy Institute Global Diplomacy Index 2024|publisher=[[Lowy Institute]]|access-date=1 March 2025}}</ref> Russia is one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]]. It is generally described as a [[great power]],<ref name="gambit">{{cite journal |editor1-last=Bunde |editor1-first=Tobias |editor2-last=Eisentraut |editor2-first=Sophie |editor3-last=Schütte |editor3-first=Leonard |last=Jintro |first=Pauly |title=Russia: The Czar's Gambit |journal=Munich Security Report 2025: Multipolarization |publisher=[[Munich Security Conference]] |date=February 2025 |pages=79–85 |doi=10.47342/EZUC8623-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Sweijs | first1=T. | last2=De Spiegeleire | first2=S. | last3=de Jong | first3=S. | last4=Oosterveld | first4=W. | last5=Roos | first5=H. | last6=Bekkers | first6=F. | last7=Usanov | first7=A. | last8=de Rave | first8=R. | last9=Jans | first9=K. | title=Volatility and friction in the age of disintermediation | publisher=The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies | page=43 |year=2017 | isbn=978-94-92102-46-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EonDwAAQBAJ | quote=We qualify the following states as great powers: China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia and the United States.}}</ref><ref name="l454">{{cite journal | last=Ellman | first=Michael | title=Russia as a great power: from 1815 to the present day. Part II | journal=Journal of Institutional Economics | volume=19 | issue=2 | date=2023 | issn=1744-1374 | doi=10.1017/S1744137422000388 | pages=159–174| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Neumann|first=Iver B|number=11|title=Russia as a Great Power, 1815–2007|date=20 May 2008|journal=Journal of International Relations and Development|volume=11|pages=128–151|doi=10.1057/jird.2008.7|s2cid=143792013|doi-access=free}}</ref> though it has been questioned whether it can retain this status.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Brian D. |title=Russian Politics: A Very Short Introduction |year=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-751602-7 |chapter=Power, status, and greatness |pages=21–40 |doi=10.1093/actrade/9780197516027.003.0002 |quote=Although the lines sometimes can be blurry, there are only three countries in the world that international relations experts typically classify as having been a great power for the past 300 years: Britain, France, and Russia... Russia's geographic size, nuclear weapons, and permanent UN Security Council seat guarantee its continuing great power status... Yet the greater economic power of the United States, the European Union, and China, as well as rising countries... meant that Russia's future standing in the world remained in doubt even before the Russo-Ukraine War.}}</ref><ref name="f495">{{cite journal | last=Šćepanović | first=Janko | title=Still a great power? Russia's status dilemmas post-Ukraine war | journal=Journal of Contemporary European Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=32 | issue=1 | date=22 March 2023 | issn=1478-2804 | doi=10.1080/14782804.2023.2193878 | pages=80–95 |quote=Drezner, as well as others like Dan Depetris, agrees that, on principle, Russia can still be counted among the great powers... At the same time, scholars rightly wonder what rank within the great power club Russia belongs to...}}</ref> Russia is also a former [[superpower]] as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.<ref name="Reiman-2016"/> and the legal successor to Soviet foreign policies.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=429–486|loc=Chapter 8. Foreign Relations}} It is a member of the [[G20]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]]—and the leading member of organisations such as the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fish |first1=M. Steven |author1-link=Steven Fish |last2=Samarin |first2=Melissa |last3=Way |first3=Lucan Ahmad |title=Russia and the CIS in 2016 |year=2017 |jstor=26367728 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |volume=57 |number=1 |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |pages=93–102|doi=10.1525/as.2017.57.1.93 }}</ref> the [[Eurasian Economic Union|EAEU]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sadri |first=Houman A. |title=Eurasian Economic Union (Eeu): a good idea or a Russian takeover? |jstor=43580687 |pages=553–561 |volume=81 |number=4 |year=2014 |journal=Rivista di studi politici internazionali |publisher=Maria Grazia Melchionni}}</ref> the [[Collective Security Treaty Organisation|CSTO]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2022/01/06/what-is-the-collective-security-treaty-organisation |title=What is the Collective Security Treaty Organisation? |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=6 January 2022 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412224018/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2022/01/06/what-is-the-collective-security-treaty-organisation |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/russias-pivot-to-asia-and-the-sco/ |last=Tiezzi |first=Shannon |title=Russia's 'Pivot to Asia' and the SCO |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |date=21 July 2015 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=4 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704104451/https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/russias-pivot-to-asia-and-the-sco/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[BRICS]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Cynthia |title=Russia's BRICs Diplomacy: Rising Outsider with Dreams of an Insider |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |volume=42 |number=1 |pages=38–73 |jstor=40587582 |journal=Polity |date=January 2010|doi=10.1057/pol.2009.18 |s2cid=54682547 }}</ref> Russia was also a member of the [[G8]] (now the [[G7]]) and part of the [[Russia in the Council of Europe|Council of Europe]] before its expulsion from the two groups in 2014 and 2022, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2014/03/24/politics/obama-europe-trip/index.html |title=U.S., other powers kick Russia out of G8 |work=[[CNN]] |date=24 March 2014 |last=Acosta |first=Jim |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=15 March 2022 |access-date=30 March 2025 |work=[[DW News]] |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |title=Russia leaves the Council of Europe |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russia-formally-departs-council-of-europe/a-61136962}}</ref>

Russia maintains close relations [[Belarus–Russia relations|with neighbouring Belarus]], which is a part of the [[Union State]], a supranational confederation of the two states.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Semi-Sovereign State: Belarus and the Russian Neo-Empire |jstor=24907272 |journal=[[Foreign Policy Analysis (journal)|Foreign Policy Analysis]] |first=Kathleen J. |last=Hancock |volume=2 |number=2 |date=April 2006 |pages=117–136 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|doi=10.1111/j.1743-8594.2006.00023.x |s2cid=153926665}}</ref> [[Serbia]] has been a [[Russia–Serbia relations|historically close ally]] of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.<ref>{{cite journal |year=1994 |jstor=40202977 |title=Russia and the Balkans: Pan-Slavism, Partnership and Power  |journal=[[Canadian International Council|International Journal]] |first=Lenard J. |last=Cohen |volume=49 |number=4 |pages=814–845 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |doi=10.2307/40202977}}</ref> From the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have significantly [[China–Russia relations|strengthened bilaterally and economically]] due to shared political interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bolt |first=Paul J. |title=Sino-Russian Relations in a Changing World Order |year=2014 |volume=8 |number=4 |jstor=26270816 |pages=47–69 |publisher=[[Air University Press]] |journal=[[Strategic Studies Quarterly]]}}</ref> [[India]] is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong [[India–Russia relations|strategic and diplomatic relationship]] since the Soviet era.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/ |title=Why India and Russia Are Going to Stay Friends |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |first=Emily |last=Tamkin |date=8 July 2020 |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112225311/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia wields great political influence across the [[geopolitics|geopolitically]] important [[South Caucasus]] and Central Asia, and the two regions have been described as being part of Russia's "backyard"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nation |first=R Craig. |title=Russia and the Caucasus |journal=Connections |year=2015 |volume=14 |number=2 |pages=1–12 |jstor=26326394 |publisher=[[Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes]] |doi=10.11610/Connections.14.2.01|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Swanström |first=Niklas |title=Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit? |journal=[[Brown Journal of World Affairs]] |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=101–113 |jstor=24590931|quote=The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.}}</ref> or "near abroad".{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=429–486|loc=Chapter 8. Foreign Relations}}<ref name="Kolstø">{{cite journal |last1=Kolstø |first1=Pål |title=Beyond Russia, becoming local: Trajectories of adaption to the fall of the Soviet Union among ethnic Russians in the former Soviet Republics |journal=Journal of Eurasian Studies |date=1 July 2011 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=153–163 |doi=10.1016/j.euras.2011.03.006 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1879366511000133 |issn=1879-3665 |quote=This is indeed true, Russia does insist that the country has a right and a duty to pose as the protector of all Russians in the so-called 'near abroad'.}}</ref>
[[File:Russian-list-of-unfriendly-countries.svg|thumb|right|{{legend2|#3F48CC}} Russia<br /> {{legend2|#AA0000}} Countries on Russia's "[[Unfriendly countries list]]". The list includes countries that have imposed [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|sanctions against Russia]] for its invasion of Ukraine.]]

Russia shares a complex [[Russia–Turkey relations|strategic, energy, and defence relationship]] with [[Turkey]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Baev |first=Pavel |work=Russie.Nei.Reports |publisher=[[Institut français des relations internationales|Ifri]] |url=https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf |title=Russia and Turkey: Strategic Partners and Rivals |date=May 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022 |number=35 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027233151/https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> It maintains [[Iran–Russia relations|cordial relations]] with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tarock |first=Adam |title=Iran and Russia in 'Strategic Alliance' |volume=18 |number=2 |date=June 1997 |pages= 207–223 |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |doi=10.1080/01436599714911 |jstor=3993220|s2cid=153838744 }}</ref> Russia has also significantly developed its [[North Korea–Russia relations|relations with North Korea]] following its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with increased defence co-operation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Howell |first=Dr Edward |title=North Korea and Russia's dangerous partnership |journal=[[Chatham House]] |location=Westminister, London |date=4 December 2024 |access-date=12 March 2025 |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2024-12/2024-12-04-north-korea-russia-dangerous-partnership-howell.pdf |isbn=978-1-78413-632-1 |doi=10.55317/9781784136321}}</ref> At the same time, its relations with [[Russia–Ukraine relations|neighbouring Ukraine]] and the Western world—specifically the [[Russia–United States relations|United States]] and the collective countries of the [[Russia–European Union relations|European Union]] and [[NATO–Russia relations|NATO]]—have collapsed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia|title=Ukraine cuts diplomatic ties with Russia after invasion|work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|date=24 February 2022|access-date=7 October 2022|quote=Ukraine has cut all diplomatic ties with Russia after President Vladimir Putin authorised an all-out invasion of Ukraine by land, air and sea.|archive-date=5 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305163901/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kanerva |first=Ilkka |title=Russia and the West |jstor=48573515 |number=12 |pages=112–119 |year=2018 |publisher=Center for International Relations and Sustainable Development |journal=Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development}}</ref>

In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing [[regional power|regional dominance]] in Europe and increasing its international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. It has initiated military interventions in the [[post-Soviet states]] of Georgia and Ukraine, as well as in [[Syria]] during its [[Syrian civil war|prolonged civil war]] in a bid to increase its influence in the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{cite report |last=Cerulli |first=Rossella |title=Russian Influence in the Middle East: Economics, Energy, and Soft Power |jstor=resrep19825 |date=1 September 2019 |pages=1–21 |publisher=American Security Project}}</ref> Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the [[Arctic]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2021/03/russia-in-the-arctica-critical-examination?lang=en |title=Russia in the Arctic – A Critical Examination |last1=Rumer |first1=Eugene |last2=Sokolsky |first2=Richard |last3=Stronski |first3=Paul |date=29 March 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022 |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411145458/https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/03/29/russia-in-arctic-critical-examination-pub-84181 |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Asia–Pacific]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Hunt |first=Luke |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/russia-tries-to-boost-asia-ties-to-counter-indo-pacific-alliances/6272006.html |title=Russia Tries to Boost Asia Ties to Counter Indo-Pacific Alliances |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref> [[Africa]]<ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2020 |title=Russia in Africa: What's behind Moscow's push into the continent? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889 |access-date=6 January 2022 |website=[[BBC]] |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413235807/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Latin America]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shuya |first=Mason |title=Russian Influence in Latin America: a Response to NATO |jstor=26696258 |volume=12 |number=2 |year=2019 |pages=17–41 |journal=[[Journal of Strategic Security]] |publisher=[[University of South Florida]] |doi=10.5038/1944-0472.12.2.1727|s2cid=199756261 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Two-thirds of the world's population, specifically the [[developing country|developing countries]] of the [[Global South]], are either neutral or leaning towards Russia politically.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Stengel |first1=Richard |title=Putin May Be Winning the Information War Outside of the U.S. and Europe |url=https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |date=20 May 2022 |access-date=1 July 2023 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818141722/https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Russia can count on support from many developing countries |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/russia-can-count-on-support-from-many-developing-countries/ |website=eiu.com |date=30 March 2022 |publisher=Economist Intelligence Unit |access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref> Russia has also continued using subversive tactics to increase perceptions of its geopolitical power in its rival countries,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feinstein |first1=Scott G. |last2=Pirro |first2=Ellen B. |title=Testing the world order: strategic realism in Russian foreign affairs |journal=International Politics |date=22 February 2021 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=817–834 |doi=10.1057/s41311-021-00285-5 |s2cid=231985182 |doi-access=free |pmc=7898250 }}</ref><ref name="gambit"/> including [[Cyberwarfare by Russia|cyberwarfare]], [[Russian disinformation|disinformation campaigns]],<ref>{{cite journal |journal=The Cyber Defense Review |last1=Mahairas |first1=Aristedes |last2=Dvilyanski |first2=Mikhail |title=Disinformation – Дезинформация (Dezinformatsiya) |year=2018 |volume=3 |number=3 |pages=21–28 |jstor=26554993}}</ref> [[sabotage]] attacks,<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Seth G. |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/russias-shadow-war-against-west |title=Russia's Shadow War Against the West |publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] (CSIS) |date=18 March 2025 |access-date=30 March 2025 |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> [[List of Russian assassinations|assassination attempts]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/germany-russia-threats-report-rheinmetall-plot-2cee42e9f9f6940eb960b0b052e3e670 |title=Russian assassination plots against those supporting Ukraine uncovered in Europe, official says |last1=Madhani |first1=Aamer |last2=Moulson |first2=Geir |work=[[Associated Press]] (AP) |date=13 July 2024 |access-date=30 March 2025 }}</ref> [[Violations of non-combatant airspaces during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|airspace violations]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Morse |first=Jasper Hufschmidt |url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/russias-catch-me-if-you-can-over-the-baltic-sea/ |title=Russia's "Catch Me If You Can" over the Baltic Sea |publisher=[[Australian Institute of International Affairs]] (AIIA) |date=26 April 2024 |access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref> electoral interferences,<ref>{{cite web |last=Popescu-Zamfir |first=Oana |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/europe/strategic-europe/2025/02/russian-interference-coming-soon-to-an-election-near-you?lang=en |title=Russian Interference: Coming Soon to an Election Near You |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] (CEIP) |date=13 February 2025 |access-date=30 March 2025 |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> and nuclear saber-rattling.<ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Heather |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/why-russia-keeps-rattling-nuclear-saber |title=Why Russia Keeps Rattling the Nuclear Saber |publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] (CSIS) |date=20 May 2024 |access-date=30 March 2025 |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Russian Armed Forces}}
[[File:Sukhoi Design Bureau, 054, Sukhoi Su-57 (49581303977).jpg|thumb|[[Sukhoi Su-57]], a [[fifth-generation fighter]] of the [[Russian Air Force]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |title=Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft? |work=[[RAND Corporation]] |author=Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson |date=17 August 2020 |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322102224/https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the [[Russian Ground Forces|Ground Forces]], the [[Russian Navy|Navy]], and the [[Russian Aerospace Force|Aerospace Forces]]—and there are also two independent arms of service: the [[Strategic Missile Troops]] and the [[Russian Airborne Troops|Airborne Troops]].{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=487–552|loc=Chapter 9. The Armed Forces}}<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |title=Russia – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=4 March 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2025}}, the military have 1.1 million active-duty personnel, which is the world's [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|fifth-largest]], and about 1.5 million [[Military reserve force|reserve personnel]].<ref>{{cite book |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies |author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance |date=2025 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-041-049-678 |page=180}}</ref> It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be [[conscription|drafted]] for a year of service in the Armed Forces.<ref name="cia"/>

Russia is among the five [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|recognised]] [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapons states]], with the world's [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]]; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat |title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance |work=[[Arms Control Association]] |date=August 2020 |access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref> Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of [[ballistic missile submarine]]s,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://power.lowyinstitute.org/data/military-capability/signature-capabilities/ballistic-missile-submarines/ |work=[[Asia Power Index]] |publisher=[[Lowy Institute]] |year=2021 |title=Ballistic missile submarines data |access-date=25 January 2022}}</ref> and is one of the only three countries operating [[strategic bomber]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=T. V. |last2=Wirtz |first2=James J. |last3=Fortmann |first3=Michael |url={{GBurl|id=9jy28vBqscQC|p=332}} |title=Balance of power: theory and practice in the 21st century |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |date=2004 |page=332 |isbn=978-0-8047-5017-2}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, Russia maintains the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|third-highest military expenditure]], spending $109 billion, corresponding to about 5.9% of its GDP.<ref name="SIPRI">{{Cite web|title=Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023|url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-03/fs_2403_at_2023.pdf|publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI)|date=March 2024|last1=Wezeman|first1=Pieter D.|last2=Djokic|first2=Katarina|last3=George|first3=Mathew|last4=Hussain|first4=Zain|last5=Wezeman|first5=Siemon T.}}</ref> It is also the [[List of countries by arms exports|third-largest arms exporter]],<ref name="SIPRI"/> and has a large and indigenous [[Defense industry of Russia|defence industry]], which produces the majority of its military equipment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Julian |title=Military Production in Russia Before and After the Start of the War With Ukraine |date=29 August 2024 |doi=10.1080/03071847.2024.2392990 |journal=[[RUSI Journal]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] on behalf of the [[Royal United Services Institute]] (RUSI) |volume=169 |number=4 |pages=10–29|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/back-stock-state-russias-defense-industry-after-two-years-war |title=Back in Stock? The State of Russia's Defense Industry after Two Years of the War |work=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] (CSIS) |location=Washington, D.C. |date=22 April 2024 |access-date=12 March 2025 |last1=Snegovaya |first1=Maria |last2=Bergmann |first2=Max |last3=Dolbaia |first3=Tina |last4=Fenton |first4=Nicholas |last5=Bendett |first5=Samuel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Roth |first=Andrew |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/15/rate-of-russian-military-production-worries-european-war-planners |title='A lot higher than we expected': Russian arms production worries Europe's war planners |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=15 February 2024 |access-date=12 March 2024 }}</ref>

===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Russia}}
Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and [[human rights group]]s. In particular, [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/russian-federation/ |title=Russian Federation |work=Amnesty International |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/russia |title=Russia |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> 

Since 2004, [[Freedom House]] has ranked Russia as "not free" in its ''[[Freedom in the World]]'' survey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2021 |title=Russia: Freedom in the World 2021 |publisher=[[Freedom House]] |access-date=20 November 2021 }}</ref> Since 2011, the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its [[Democracy Index]], ranking it 150th out of 167 countries in 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 February 2025 |title=The global democracy index: how did countries perform in 2024? |url=https://www.economist.com/interactive/democracy-index-2024 |access-date=28 February 2025 |newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref> In regards to [[media freedom in Russia|media freedom]], Russia was ranked 162nd out of 180 countries in [[Reporters Without Borders]]' [[Press Freedom Index]] for 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rsf.org/en/russia |title=Russia |work=[[Reporters Without Borders]] |access-date=8 June 2022}}</ref> The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and [[Human rights defender|human rights activists]] for [[Elections in Russia|unfair elections]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Simmons |first=Ann M. |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/russias-opposition-candidates-struggle-to-make-a-mark-in-election-11631886631 |title=In Russia's Election, Putin's Opponents Are Seeing Double |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=18 September 2021 |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref> crackdowns on [[Opposition to Vladimir Putin in Russia|opposition political parties and protests]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Andrew E. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/10/world/europe/putin-navalny-russian-opposition-crackdown.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/10/world/europe/putin-navalny-russian-opposition-crackdown.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited |title=In Shadow of Navalny Case, What's Left of the Russian Opposition? |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=10 June 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Seddon |first=Max |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e8889644-051c-41f6-a991-6a32091e5c54 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/e8889644-051c-41f6-a991-6a32091e5c54 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Russian crackdown brings pro-Navalny protests to halt |work=[[Financial Times]] |date=13 February 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> [[Russian undesirable organizations law|persecution of non-governmental organisations]] and enforced suppression and [[List of journalists killed in Russia|killings of independent journalists]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Goncharenko |first=Roman |url=https://www.dw.com/en/ngos-in-russia-battered-but-unbowed/a-41459467 |title=NGOs in Russia: Battered, but unbowed |work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]  |date=21 November 2017 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Yaffa |first=Joshua |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/dispatch/the-victims-of-putins-crackdown-on-the-press |title=The Victims of Putin's Crackdown On The Press |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=7 September 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Simon|first=Scott|title=Why Do Russian Journalists Keep Falling?|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/04/21/604497554/why-do-russian-journalists-keep-falling|date=21 April 2018|work=[[NPR]]|access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref> and [[Censorship in the Russian Federation|censorship]] of mass media and [[Internet censorship in Russia|internet]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/18/russia-growing-internet-isolation-control-censorship |title=Russia: Growing Internet Isolation, Control, Censorship |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=18 June 2020 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Protest against the invasion of Ukraine (Yekaterinburg, February 24, 2022).jpg|thumb|Following the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in 2022, [[Anti-war protests in Russia (2022–present)|anti-war protests]] broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaliy |date=15 March 2022 |title=Ukraine war: Protester exposes cracks in Kremlin's war message |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60749064 |access-date=3 April 2022 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>]]

Muslims, especially [[Salafi movement|Salafis]], have faced persecution in Russia.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Herszenhorn |first=David M. |date=1 July 2015 |title=Russia Sees a Threat in Its Converts to Islam |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/02/world/russia-sees-a-threat-in-its-converts-to-islam.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150704162736/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/02/world/russia-sees-a-threat-in-its-converts-to-islam.html?_r=0 |archive-date=4 July 2015 |issn=0362-4331|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=U.S. Report Says Russia Among 'Worst Violators' Of Religious Freedom |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-worst-violators-religious-freedom-report-iran-turkmenistan/31215737.html |website=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |language=en}}</ref> To quash the [[insurgency in the North Caucasus]], Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clancy Chassay |date=19 September 2009 |title=Russian killings and kidnaps extend dirty war in Ingushetia |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/20/ingushetia-dirty-war-russia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221117075517/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/20/ingushetia-dirty-war-russia |archive-date=17 November 2022 |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref> arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DENIS SOKOLOV |date=20 August 2016 |title=Putin's Savage War Against Russia's 'New Muslims' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/putin-savage-war-against-russia-new-muslims-490783 |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=[[Newsweek]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=🇷🇺Ingushetia: A second Chechnya? l People and Power |date=13 October 2010 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_kHz8bhMFc&t=504s |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |language=en}}</ref> In [[Dagestan]], some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.<ref>{{Citation |title=Russia's Invisible War: Crackdown on Salafi Muslims in Dagestan |date=17 June 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfjsgSiBkZQ |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |language=en |access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=[[Associated Press]] |date=25 November 2015 |title=Russian Crackdown on Muslims Fuels Exodus to IS |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/russian-crackdown-on-muslims-fuels-exodus-to-islamic-state/3073139.html |website=[[Voice of America]] |language=en}}</ref> Chechens and [[Ingush people|Ingush]] in [[Russian prisons]] reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mairbek Vatchagaev |date=9 April 2015 |title=Abuse of Chechens and Ingush in Russian Prisons Creates Legions of Enemies |url=https://jamestown.org/program/abuse-of-chechens-and-ingush-in-russian-prisons-creates-legions-of-enemies-2/ |website=[[Jamestown Foundation]]}}</ref> During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up [[Russian filtration camps for Ukrainians|filtration camps]] where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to [[Filtration camp system in Chechnya|those used in the Chechen Wars]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marquise Francis |date=7 April 2022 |title=What are Russian 'filtration camps'? |url=https://news.yahoo.com/what-are-russian-filtration-camps-194643731.html |website=[[Yahoo! News]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Katie Bo Lillis, Kylie Atwood and Natasha Bertrand |title=Russia is depopulating parts of eastern Ukraine, forcibly removing thousands into remote parts of Russia |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/26/politics/ukraine-filtration-camps-forcibly-remove-russia/index.html |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=[[CNN]]|date=26 May 2022 }}</ref> Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with [[Russian 2022 war censorship laws|laws adopted]] that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weir |first1=Fred |title=In Russia, critiquing the Ukraine war could land you in prison |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2022/1205/In-Russia-critiquing-the-Ukraine-war-could-land-you-in-prison |work=CSMonitor.com |date=5 December 2022}}</ref>

Russia has introduced several restrictions on [[LGBTQ rights in Russia|LGBTQ rights]]. In 2013, an [[Russian anti-LGBTQ law|anti-LGBTQ law]] banning "gay propaganda" was unanimously passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council, later being signed into law by Vladimir Putin.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/11/russia-law-banning-gay-propaganda |title=Russia passes law banning gay 'propaganda' |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=11 June 2013 |last=Elder |first=Miriam |access-date=17 April 2025}}</ref> In 2020, the Russian parliament legalized a constitutional ban on [[Recognition of same-sex unions in Russia|same-sex marriage]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/russian-voters-back-referendum-banning-same-sex-marriage-n1232802 |title=Russian voters back referendum banning same-sex marriage |work=[[NBC News]] |access-date=17 April 2025 |date=3 July 2020 |last=Venkatraman |first=Sakshi}}</ref> and in 2021 the [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Ministry of Justice]] designated the LGBTQ rights group [[Russian LGBT Network]] as a "[[foreign agent]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/11/russia-frontline-group-lgbt-network-and-human-rights-lawyers-branded-foreign-agents/ |title=Russia: Frontline group LGBT-Network and human rights lawyers branded "foreign agents" |date=9 November 2021 |work=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=17 April 2025}}</ref> In 2022, further amendments were made to the 2013 anti-LGBTQ law.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/12/05/europe/russia-lgbtq-propaganda-law-signed-by-putin-intl/index.html |title=Putin signs expanded anti-LGBTQ laws in Russia, in latest crackdown on rights |work=[[CNN]] |date=5 December 2022 |access-date=17 April 2025 |last1=Kottasová |first1=Ivana |last2=Chernova |first2=Anna}}</ref> In 2023, the Russian parliament passed a bill banning [[gender reassignment surgery]] for [[transgender]] people and the [[Supreme Court of Russia]] banned the [[LGBTQ movements|international LGBTQ movement]] as "extremist", outlawing it in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-66200194 |title=Russian parliament bans gender reassignment surgery for trans people |last=Murphy |first=Matt |date=14 July 2023 |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/30/russia-supreme-court-bans-lgbt-movement-extremist |title=Russia: Supreme Court Bans LGBT Movement as "Extremist" |work=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=30 November 2023 |access-date=17 April 2025}}</ref> In 2024, the Supreme Court issued the first convictions from the latter ruling.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/02/15/russia-first-convictions-under-lgbt-extremist-ruling |title=Russia: First Convictions Under LGBT 'Extremist' Ruling |date=15 February 2024 |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

=== Law, corruption and crime ===
{{Main|Law of Russia|Law enforcement in Russia|Crime in Russia|Corruption in Russia}}
Post-Soviet Russia under the regime of Vladimir Putin has been governed by a form of [[crony capitalism]].<ref name="crony">{{cite book|last=Åslund|first=Anders|year= 2019|title=Russia's Crony Capitalism: The Path from Market Economy to Kleptocracy|pages=5–7|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-24486-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ledeneva |first=Alena |title=Cronies, Economic Crime and Capitalism in Putin's Sistema |journal=[[International Affairs]] |publisher=[[Chatham House]] |volume=88 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=149–157 |jstor=41428546}}</ref> Its political system has been variously described as a [[kleptocracy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fish |first=M. Steven |author-link=Steven Fish |title=What Has Russia Become? |jstor=26532689 |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=50 |number=3 |date=April 2018 |pages=327–346 |publisher=[[City University of New York]] |location=New York City|doi=10.5129/001041518822704872 }}</ref> an [[oligarchy]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Guriev|first1=Sergei|last2=Rachinsky|first2=Andrei|title=The Role of Oligarchs in Russian Capitalism|year=2005|volume=19|number=1|journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives|pages=131–150|publisher=[[American Economic Association]]|doi=10.1257/0895330053147994 |jstor=4134996|s2cid=17653502 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and a [[plutocracy]].<ref name="crony"/> {{As of|2024}}, it is the lowest rated European country in [[Transparency International]]'s annual [[Corruption Perceptions Index]], ranking 154th out of the 180 countries listed.<ref>{{cite web |date= 11 February 2025|title=Corruptions Perceptions Index 2024 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2024 |access-date=28 February 2025 |publisher=[[Transparency International]]}}</ref> 
[[File:Alexei Navalny marching in 2017.jpg|thumb|Opposition leader [[Alexei Navalny]] leading protestors in Moscow in the nationwide [[2017–2018 Russian protests|anti-corruption protests of 2017–2018]]]]
Corruption has significantly increased following the collapse of the Soviet Union,<ref>{{cite web |author=Suhara, Manabu |title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective |url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf |publisher=[[Slavic-Eurasian Research Center]] |access-date=4 December 2015 }}</ref> and is seen as a significant issue in society.<ref name="markus">{{cite journal |last=Markus |first=Stanislav |title=Oligarchs and Corruption in Putin's Russia: Of Sand Castles and Geopolitical Volunteering |journal=[[Georgetown Journal of International Affairs]] |volume=18 |number=2 |year=2017 |pages=26-32 |jstor=26396016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New Reports Highlight Russia's Deep-Seated Culture of Corruption |url=https://www.voanews.com/europe/new-reports-highlight-russias-deep-seated-culture-corruption |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref> It affects various sectors, including the economy,<ref name="markus"/> the [[Government of Russia|government]],<ref>{{cite web |author=Suhara, Manabu |title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective |url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf |publisher=[[Slavic-Eurasian Research Center]] |access-date=4 December 2015 }}</ref> [[Law enforcement in Russia|law enforcement]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=Theodore P. |last2=Mendelson |first2=Sarah E. |author2-link=Sarah E. Mendelson |title=Public Experiences of Police Violence and Corruption in Contemporary Russia: A Case of Predatory Policing? |jstor=29734103 |journal=[[Law & Society Review]] |volume=42 |number=1 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |date=March 2008 |pages=1–44|doi=10.1111/j.1540-5893.2008.00333.x }}</ref> [[Healthcare in Russia|healthcare]],<ref>{{cite web |author1=Klara Sabirianova Peter |first2=Tetyana |last2=Zelenska |year=2010 |title=Corruption in Russian Health Care: The Determinants and Incidence of Bribery |url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf |publisher=[[Georgia State University]] |access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/corruption-pervades-russias-health-system/ |title=Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System |publisher=[[CBS News]] |date=28 June 2007 |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> [[Education in Russia|education]],<ref>{{cite web |first1=Elena |last1=Denisova-Schmidt |first2=Elvira |last2=Leontyeva |first3=Yaroslav |last3=Prytula |year=2014 |title=Corruption at Universities is a Common Disease for Russia and Ukraine |url=http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine |access-date=4 December 2015 |publisher=[[Harvard University]]}}</ref> and the military.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/corruption-russian-armed-forces|title=Corruption in the Russian Armed Forces|last1=Cranny-Evans|first1=Sam|last2=Ivshina|first2=Olga|date=12 May 2022|publisher=[[Royal United Services Institute]] (RUSI)|location=[[Westminster]]|access-date=6 October 2022|quote=Corruption in the Russian armed forces, and society in general, has been a long-acknowledged truism.}}</ref> Russia's [[informal economy|shadow economy]] was estimated to be about 44% of the total GDP in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sauka |first1=Arnis |last2=Putniņš |first2=Tālis J. |title=Shadow Economy Index for Russia |url=https://www.sseriga.edu/shadow-economy-index-russia |publisher=[[Stockholm School of Economics in Riga]] |access-date=7 April 2025}}</ref> [[Russian penal military units during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|Penal military units]] have been deployed as [[shock troops|storm troops]] during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War since 2022, such as the [[Storm-Z]] and [[Storm-V]] units.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-recruited-convicts-fierce-assault-units-storm-gladiator-/32806371.html |title=Storm Gladiator: How Russia Uses Recruited Convicts To Fight In 'Fierce' Assault Units In Ukraine |work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |last1=Belovodyev |first1=Daniil |last2=Systema |date=5 February 2024 |access-date=7 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67175566 |title=Ukraine war: Russia goes back to prisons to feed its war machine |work=[[BBC]] |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaly |date=26 October 2023 |access-date=7 April 2025}}</ref> According to estimates by the BBC, around 48,000 prisoners were recruited to fight for the Wagner Group.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1e7vl01gngo |title=Russia's soldiers bringing wartime violence back home |work=[[BBC]] |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaly |date=17 November 2024 |access-date=7 April 2025}}</ref>

The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the constitution. Statutes, such as the [[Russian Civil Code]] and the [[Russian Criminal Code]], are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.<ref>{{cite web | last=Partlett | first=William | title=Reclassifying Russian Law: Mechanisms, Outcomes, and Solutions for an Overly Politicized Field | website=Search eLibrary | date=7 July 2010 | ssrn=1197762 | url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1197762 | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=William E. |title=Criminal Code of the Russian Federation |year= 1999 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> Russia has the [[List of countries by incarceration rate|largest incarcerated population]] in Europe, and the fifth-largest incarcerated population in the world.<ref name="icjpr">{{cite web |url=https://www.icpr.org.uk/news-events/2024/prison-populations-continue-rise-many-parts-world-115-million-held-prisons |title=Prison populations continue to rise in many parts of the world, with 11.5 million held in prisons worldwide |work=Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research |publisher=[[Birkbeck, University of London]] |date=1 May 2024 |access-date=7 April 2025}}</ref> Its incarceration rate is among the highest in Europe,<ref>{{cite web |last=Adami |first=Marina |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-prison-population-data-incarceration/ |title=Turkey, Russia lead Europe's incarceration rates |work=[[Politico]] |date=8 April 2021 |access-date=7 April 2025}}</ref> although the number has fallen steadily, by 59% since 2000.<ref name="icjpr" /> {{As of|2021}}, Russia's [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|intentional homicide rate]] stood at 6.8 per 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/indicator/vc-ihr-psrc-p5?gender=total |title=Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) |work=[[World Bank]] |access-date=7 April 2025}}</ref> In 2023, Russia had the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, was described as a key hub for human trafficking, and was ranked first in Europe and 19th globally in the [[Global Organized Crime Index]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Criminality in Russia | website=The Organized Crime Index | date=4 May 2023 | url=https://ocindex.net/country/russia | access-date=16 April 2025}}</ref>