Editing Reformation (section)

==Catholic reform==
{{See also|Counter-Reformation}}

===Beginnings===
The religious upheaval in Germany and the sack of Rome convinced many Catholics that their Church was in need of a profound reform. [[Pope Paul III]] ({{reign|1534|1549}}) appointed prominent representatives of the Catholic reform movement as cardinals, among them Contarini, [[Reginald Pole]] (d. 1558), and [[Giovanni Pietro Caraffa]] (d. 1559). They [[Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia|completed a report]] condemning the corruption of church administration and the waste of church revenues.{{refn|group=note|Among others, the report suggested the dissolution of most monastic orders, allowing only the strictest orders to survive.{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=94}}}} Contarini, Pole and other {{lang|it|Spirituali}} were ready to make concessions to the Protestants but their liberalism shocked Caraffa and other conservative prelates.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=207–211}}

Negotiations between moderate Catholic and Protestant theologians were not unusual. In 1541, Bucer and the Catholic theologian [[Johann Gropper]] (d. 1559) drafted a compromise formula on [[justification (theology)|justification]].{{refn|group=note|The compromise included the statement that "the sinner is justified by a living and effectual faith".{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=92}}}} The draft was discussed along with other issues at a colloquy during the [[Diet of Regensburg (1541)|Diet of Regensburg]] but no compromise was reached, not least due to opposition by both Luther and the Holy See.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=353–354}} Contarini, who represented the papacy at the Diet, died in 1541; many {{lang|it|Spirituali}} such as Vermigli fled from Italy to avoid persecution.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=224}} [[Hermann of Wied]], [[Archbishop-elector of Cologne]] ({{reign|1515|1546}}) completed a reform program with Bucer's assistance, criticising prayers to the saints and traditional Eucharistic theology, and proposing sermons about justification by faith.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=262–263}} The canons of the [[Cologne Cathedral]] requested Gropper to write a critical response to it,{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=263}} and achieved Hermann's deposal by the Roman Curia.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=354}}

===New Orders===
[[File:Exercitia Spiritualia 1ed2.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A page with printed text|Title page of the first edition of the ''[[Spiritual Exercises]]'' by [[Ignatius of Loyola]], published in 1548]]
The spread of new monastic orders was an important element of the Catholic reform movement. Most new orders placed great value on pastoral care.{{refn|group=note|The [[Theatines]] offered pastoral care for the needy and the sick, especially for those who suffered from syphilis,{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=93}} the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]] were itinerant friars also preaching to the poor and the sick.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=213}}}} Among them, the [[Society of Jesus]] (or Jesuits) became the most influential.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=212–214}} Its founder [[Ignatius of Loyola]] (d. 1556) was born to a Basque noble family. He chose a military career but abandoned it after being wounded [[Italian War of 1521–1526|during a siege]]. He started to write a devotional guide, the ''[[Spiritual Exercises]]'', during his ascetic retreat [[Cave of Saint Ignatius|at a cave]].{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=333–334}} [[Ignatian spirituality|His mysticism]] arouse the Spanish Inquisition's suspicion but the {{lang|it|Spirituali}} supported him. {{nowrap|Paul III}} sanctioned the establishment of the Jesuits on Contarini's influence in 1540.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=215–216}} The new order quickly developed: when Loyola died, the Society had about 1,000 members; in less than a decade, it numbered around 3,500. The maintenance of a well organised schooling system was the Jesuits' most prominent feature. Their [[Collegium Germanicum et Hungaricum|Roman collegium]] prepared future priests to discuss and reject Protestant theologies primarily in Germany, Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary.{{sfn|O'Malley|2006|pp=224, 227, 231}}

===Council of Trent===
{{main|Council of Trent}}
{{nowrap|Paul III}} decided to convoke the nineteenth ecumenical council to handle the crisis caused by the Reformation. The [[Council of Trent]] met in a series of sessions from December 1545 to 1548, 1521 to 1522, and 1562 to 1563.<ref group=note>"It ran in two tracks: alongside the reformulation of Catholic doctrine in contrast to Protestant teaching stood the many general…reform decrees which would influence the life of Catholicism for centuries to come.{{cite journal |last1=Campi |first1=Emidio |title=Was the Reformation a German Event? |journal=The Myth of the Reformation |date=19 June 2013 |pages=9–31 |doi=10.13109/9783666550331.9|isbn=978-3-525-55033-5 }}</ref>{{sfn|Collinson|2005|pp=94–95}}  The topics dealt with included the Creed, the Sacraments including transubstantiation and ordination,{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=267}} justification, and improvement in the quality of priests by diocesan seminaries and annual canonical visitations.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=294}} The council reaffirmed that apostolic tradition was as authentic a source of faith as the Bible, and emphasized the importance of good works in salvation, rejecting two important elements of Luther's theology.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=227–229}} Before being closed in December 1563, the Council mandate the papacy to revise liturgical books and complete a new catechism.{{sfn|Ditchfield|2022|p=212}} [[Carlo Borromeo]], [[Archbishop of Milan]] (d. 1582) adopted a more practical approach. He completed a handbook covering everyday details of church life, including the delivery of sermons, arrangement of church interiors, and hearing confessions.{{sfn|Ditchfield|2022|p=228}} After the council, papal authority was reinforced through the establishment of central offices known as [[Congregation (Roman Curia)|congregations]]. One of them became responsible for the [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|list of forbidden literature]]. All church officials and university teachers were required to take a Tridentine confessional oath that included an oath of "true obedience" to the papacy.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=211–212}}

Lindberg suggests that (following Trent) the "spirituality of Catholic reform was the ascetic, subjective, and personal piety", as expressed in public processions, the "perpetual" [[Eucharistic adoration|adoration of the Eucharist]], and the reaffirmed veneration of Mary the Virgin and the saints.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=344}}