Editing Nationalism (section)

== Types ==
{{see also|Types of nationalism}}
Historians, sociologists and anthropologists have debated different types of nationalism since at least the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wirth|first=Louis|date=1 May 1936|title=Types of Nationalism|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=41|issue=6|pages=723–737|doi=10.1086/217296|s2cid=144187204|issn=0002-9602}}</ref> Generally, the most common way of classifying nationalism has been to describe movements as having either "civic" or "ethnic" nationalist characteristics. This distinction was popularized in the 1950s by [[Hans Kohn]] who described "civic" nationalism as "Western" and more democratic while depicting "ethnic" nationalism as "Eastern" and undemocratic.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Idea of Nationalism: A Study of Its Origins and Background|last=Kohn|first=Hans|publisher=Macmillan|orig-date=1944 |type=reprint|year=2005|isbn=978-1412804769|location=New York}}</ref> Since the 1980s, scholars of nationalism have pointed out numerous flaws in this rigid division and proposed more specific classifications and numerous varieties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spencer|first1=Philip|last2=Wollman|first2=Howard|date=1 October 1998|title=Good and bad nationalisms: A critique of dualism|journal=Journal of Political Ideologies|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–274|doi=10.1080/13569319808420780|s2cid=145053698 |issn=1356-9317}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yack|first=Bernard|date=1 March 1996|title=The myth of the civic nation|journal=Critical Review|volume=10|issue=2|pages=193–211|doi=10.1080/08913819608443417|issn=0891-3811}}</ref>

=== Anti-colonial ===
[[File:Crowd demonstrates against Great Britain in Cairo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Crowd demonstrates against Britain in [[Cairo]] on 23 October 1951 as tension continued to mount in the dispute between Egypt and Britain over control of the [[Suez Canal]] and [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]].]]
Anti-colonial nationalism is an intellectual framework that preceded, accompanied and followed the process of [[decolonization]] in the mid-1900s. [[Benedict Anderson]] defined a nation as a socially constructed community that is co-created by individuals who imagine themselves as part of this group.<ref name="Mylonas"/><ref name="Anderson">{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism|publisher=Verso Books|location=London|year=1983}}</ref> He points to the [[New World]] as the site that originally conceived of nationalism as a concept, which is defined by its imagination of an ahistorical identity that negates colonialism by definition. This concept of nationalism was exemplified by the transformation of settler colonies into nations, while anti-colonial nationalism is exemplified by movements against colonial powers in the 1900s.

Nationalist mobilization in French colonial Africa and British colonial India developed "when colonial regimes refused to cede rights to their increasingly well-educated colonial subjects",  who formed indigenous elites and strategically adopted and adapted nationalist tactics.<ref name="Mylonas"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Adria |title=Imperial rule and the politics of nationalism : anti-colonial protest in the French empire |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York, NY, USA |isbn=9781107640757}}</ref><ref name="Tudor">{{cite book |last1=Tudor |first1=Maya Jessica |title=The promise of power : the origins of democracy in India and autocracy in Pakistan |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781139519076}}</ref> New national identities may cross pre-existing ethnic or linguistic divisions.<ref name="Mylonas"/> Anti-colonial independence movements in Africa and Asia in the 1900s were led by individuals who had a set of shared identities and imagined a homeland without external rule. Anderson argues that the racism often experienced as a result of colonial rule and attributed to nationalism is rather due to theories of class.<ref name=":8" />

[[Gellner's theory of nationalism]] argues that nationalism works for combining one culture or ethnicity in one state, which leads to that state's success. For Gellner, nationalism is ethnic, and state political parties should reflect the ethnic majority in the state. This definition of nationalism also contributes to anti-colonial nationalism, if one conceives of anti-colonial movements to be movements consisting of one specific ethnic group against an outside ruling party.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gellner|first=Ernest |title=Nationalism |date=1997|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=0814731139|location=Washington Square, N.Y.|oclc=37353976}}</ref> Edward Said also saw nationalism as ethnic, at least in part, and argued that nationalist narratives often go hand in hand with racism, as communities define themselves in relation to the other.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Said|first=Edward W. |title=Orientalism|date=1978|publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=0394428145|edition=First |location=New York|oclc=4004102}}</ref>

Anti-colonial nationalism is not static and is defined by different forms of nationalism depending on location. In the anti-colonial movement that took place in the Indian subcontinent, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and his allies in the [[Indian independence movement]] argued for a [[composite nationalism]], not believing that an independent Indian nation should be defined by its religious identity.<ref>{{cite web|last=Grant|first=Moyra|title=Politics Review|url=http://moodle.collyers.ac.uk/file.php/465/Politics_Review_articles/nationalism_expansionistanddesrtuctive.pdf|url-access=subscription|access-date=16 April 2011|publisher=Politics Review}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="BennemaBhakiaraj2011">{{cite book |last1=Bennema |first1=Cornelis |last2=Bhakiaraj |first2=Paul Joshua |title=Indian and Christian: Changing Identities in Modern India |date=2011 |publisher=SAIACS Press & Oxford House Research |isbn=978-8187712268 |page=157 |language=en|quote=Both these approaches are shown to be within the framework of 'composite nationalism', where Indian Christians maintained their communal distinctiveness while aspiring for national integration.}}</ref> Despite large-scale [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposition]] by the [[Indian National Congress]] supporters, the insistence of the Muslims under the separatist [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] resulted in the [[Indian subcontinent]] being [[Partition of India|partitioned]] into two states in 1947 along religious lines into the Muslim-majority [[Dominion of Pakistan]] and the Hindu-majority [[Dominion of India]].<ref name="Chitkara1988">{{cite book |last1=Chitkara |first1=M. G. |title=Converts Do Not Make a Nation |date=1998 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=9788170249825 |page=240 |language=en}}</ref>

Because of colonialism's creation of state and country lines across ethnic, religious, linguistic and other historical boundaries, anti-colonial nationalism is largely related to land first. After independence, especially in countries with particularly diverse populations with historic enmity, there have been a series of smaller independence movements that are also defined by anti-colonialism.

Philosopher and scholar Achille Mbembe argues that post-colonialism is a contradictory term, because colonialism is ever present.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mbembe|first=Achille |title=On the postcolony|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520917538|location=Berkeley |oclc=49570017}}</ref> Those that participate in this intellectual practice envision a post-colonialism despite its being the defining frame for the world. This is the case with anti-colonialism as well. Anti-colonial nationalism as an intellectual framework persisted into the late 20th century with the [[Revolutions of 1989|resistance movements]] in Soviet satellite states and continues with [[Arab Spring|independence movements]] in the Arab world in the 21st century.

=== Civic and liberal ===
{{main|Civic nationalism}}
Civic nationalism defines the nation as an association of people who identify themselves as belonging to the nation, who have equal and shared political rights, and allegiance to similar political procedures.<ref name="blackwell">{{cite book| last = Nash | first = Kate| title = The Blackwell companion to political sociology| page = 391| date = 2001| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell| isbn = 978-0631210504}}</ref> According to the principles of civic nationalism, the nation is not based on common ethnic ancestry, but is a political entity whose core identity is not ethnicity. This civic concept of nationalism is exemplified by [[Ernest Renan]] in his lecture in 1882 "[[What is a Nation?]]", where he defined the nation as a "daily referendum" (frequently translated "daily [[plebiscite]]") dependent on the will of its people to continue living together.<ref name="blackwell"/>

Civic nationalism is normally associated with [[liberal nationalism]], although the two are distinct, and did not always coincide. On the one hand, until the late 19th and early 20th century adherents to anti-Enlightenment movements such as French [[Legitimism]] or Spanish [[Carlism]] often rejected the liberal, national unitary state, yet identified themselves not with an ethnic nation but with a non-national dynasty and regional feudal privileges. Xenophobic movements in long-established Western European states indeed often took a 'civic national' form, rejecting a given group's ability to assimilate with the nation due to its belonging to a cross-border community (Irish Catholics in Britain, Ashkenazic Jews in France). On the other hand, while subnational separatist movements were commonly associated with ethnic nationalism, this was not always so, and such nationalists as the [[Corsican Republic]], [[United Irishmen]], [[Breton Federalist League]] or [[Catalan Republican Party]] could combine a rejection of the unitary civic-national state with a belief in liberal universalism.

Liberal nationalism is commonly considered to be compatible with [[liberal values]] of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]], [[Toleration|tolerance]], [[Egalitarianism|equality]], and [[individual rights]].<ref>Tamir, Yael. 1993. ''Liberal Nationalism.'' Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0691078939}}</ref>{{sfn|Kymlicka|1995|p=200}}<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|1995|pp=188–189}}</ref> [[Ernest Renan]]<ref>Renan, Ernest. 1882. [http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Qu%27est-ce_qu%27une_nation_%3F "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428090814/https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Qu%27est-ce_qu%27une_nation_ |date=28 April 2021 }}</ref> and [[John Stuart Mill]]<ref>Mill, John Stuart. 1861. ''Considerations on Representative Government.''</ref> are often thought to be early liberal nationalists. Liberal nationalists often defend the value of national identity by saying that individuals need a national identity to lead meaningful, autonomous lives,{{sfn|Kymlicka|1995|p=34}}<ref>For criticism, see: {{cite journal | last1 = Patten | first1 = Alan | year = 1999 | title = The Autonomy Argument for Liberal Nationalism | journal = [[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 1–17 | doi=10.1111/j.1354-5078.1999.00001.x}}</ref> and that liberal democratic polities need national identity to function properly.<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|1995|p=136}}</ref><ref>For criticism, see: {{cite journal | last1 = Abizadeh | first1 = Arash | year = 2002 | title = Does Liberal Democracy Presuppose a Cultural Nation? Four Arguments | url = http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82 | journal = American Political Science Review | volume = 96 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–509 | doi = 10.1017/s000305540200028x | s2cid = 145715867 | access-date = 8 July 2015 | archive-date = 7 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82 | url-status = live }}; {{cite journal | last1 = Abizadeh | first1 = Arash | year = 2004 | title = Liberal Nationalist versus Postnational Social Integration | url = http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542 | journal = [[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 231–250 | doi = 10.1111/j.1354-5078.2004.00165.x | access-date = 8 July 2015 | archive-date = 7 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542 | url-status = live }}</ref>

Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of [[rationalism]] and liberalism, but as a form of nationalism it is usually contrasted with [[ethnic nationalism]]. Civic nationalism is correlated with long-established states whose dynastic rulers had gradually acquired multiple distinct territories, with little change to boundaries, but which contained historical populations of multiple linguistic and/or confessional backgrounds. Since individuals living within different parts of the state territory might have little obvious common ground, civic nationalism developed as a way for rulers to both explain a contemporary reason for such heterogeneity and to provide a common purpose ([[Ernest Renan]]'s classic description in [[What is a Nation?]] (1882) as a voluntary partnership for a common endeavor). Renan argued that factors such as ethnicity, language, religion, economics, geography, ruling dynasty and historic military deeds were important but not sufficient. Needed was a spiritual soul that allowed as a "daily referendum" among the people.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Singley | first1 = Carol J. | year = 2003 | title = Race, Culture, Nation: Edith Wharton and Ernest Renan | journal = Twentieth Century Literature | volume = 49 | issue = 1| pages = 32–45 | doi=10.2307/3176007| jstor = 3176007 }}</ref> Civic-national ideals influenced the development of [[representative democracy]] in multiethnic countries such as the United States and France, as well as in constitutional monarchies such as Great Britain, Belgium and Spain.<ref name="google_2016_pg173"/>

[[File:2012 UPA March in Kiev.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian nationalists carry portraits of [[Stepan Bandera]] and flags of the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]].]]

=== Creole ===
{{main|Creole nationalism}}
Creole nationalism is the ideology that emerged in independence movements among the creoles (descendants of the colonizers), especially in [[Latin America]] in the early 19th century.<ref> Joshua Simon, ''The Ideology of Creole Revolution: Imperialism and Independence in American and Latin American Political Thought'' (2017) pp 1-2.</ref> It was facilitated when French Emperor Napoleon seized control of Spain and Portugal, breaking the chain of control from the Spanish and Portuguese kings to the local governors. Allegiance to the Napoleonic states was rejected, and increasingly the creoles demanded independence. They achieved it after civil wars 1808–1826.<ref>D. A. Brading, ''The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots and the Liberal State 1492–1866'' (1991)</ref>

=== Ethnic === <!-- This section is linked from [[White supremacy]]. -->
{{see also|Ethnic nationalism}}
Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethno-nationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the "nation" is defined in terms of [[ethnicity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/third_position.html |title=The Website of Political Research Associates |publisher=PublicEye.org |access-date=26 May 2015 |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419124320/http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/third_position.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The central theme of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a [[common language]], a common faith, and a [[Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic group|common ethnic ancestry]]".<ref name="ReferenceA">Muller, Jerry Z. "Us and Them." Current Issue 501 Mar/Apr 2008 9–14</ref> It also includes ideas of a [[culture]] shared between members of the group, and with their ancestors. It is different from a purely cultural definition of "the nation," which allows people to become members of a nation by [[cultural assimilation]]; and from a purely linguistic definition, according to which "the nation" consists of all speakers of a specific language.

Whereas nationalism in and of itself does not imply a belief in the superiority of one ethnicity or country over others, some nationalists support [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] supremacy or protectionism.

The humiliation of being a second-class citizen led regional minorities in multiethnic states, such as Great Britain, Spain, France, Germany, Russia and the Ottoman Empire, to define nationalism in terms of loyalty to their minority culture, especially language and religion. Forced assimilation was anathema.<ref>Timothy Baycroft, ''Nationalism in Europe 1789–1945'' (1998) p. 56.</ref>

For the politically dominant cultural group, assimilation was necessary to minimize disloyalty and treason and therefore became a major component of nationalism. A second factor for the politically dominant group was competition with neighboring states—nationalism involved a rivalry, especially in terms of military prowess and economic strength.<ref>Baycroft, ''Nationalism in Europe 1789–1945'' (1998) p. 58.</ref>

=== Economic ===
{{see also|Economic nationalism}}
Economic nationalism, or economic patriotism, is an ideology that favors [[Economic interventionism|state interventionism]] in the economy, with policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and [[capital formation]], even if this requires the imposition of [[tariff]]s and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gilpin|first=Robert|url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691022628/the-political-economy-of-international-relations|title=The Political Economy of International Relations|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0691022628|pages=31–34|language=en|access-date=5 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613233003/https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691022628/the-political-economy-of-international-relations|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Helleiner |first=Eric |date=2021 |title=The Diversity of Economic Nationalism |journal=New Political Economy |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=229–238 |doi=10.1080/13563467.2020.1841137 |issn=1356-3467 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Gendered and muscular ===
{{main|Nationalism and gender}}
Feminist critique interprets nationalism as a mechanism through which sexual control and repression are justified and legitimized, often by a dominant masculine power. The [[gender]]ing of nationalism through socially constructed notions of [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]] not only shapes what masculine and feminine participation in the building of that nation will look like, but also how the nation will be imagined by nationalists.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Banerjee|first=Sikata|title=Gender and nationalism: the masculinization of hinduism and female political participation in india|journal=Women's Studies International Forum|volume=26|issue=2|pages=167–179|doi=10.1016/s0277-5395(03)00019-0 |year=2003}}</ref> A nation having its own identity is viewed as necessary, and often inevitable, and these identities are gendered.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Mackay|first=Eva|date=2000|title=Death by Landscape: Race, Nature and Gender in the Canadian Nationalist Mythology |url=http://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/7618/6749|journal=Canadian Woman Studies|volume=20|pages=125–130|via=Journals.Yorku |access-date=17 November 2017|archive-date=12 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012014631/https://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/7618/6749|url-status=live}}</ref> The physical land itself is often gendered as female (i.e. "Motherland"), with a body in constant danger of violation by foreign males, while national pride and protectiveness of "her" borders is gendered as masculine.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Woman and War Reader |last=Peterson |first=Spike V. |publisher=New York University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0814751459 |editor-last=Turpin |editor-first=Jennifer |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/womenwarreader00lore_0/page/41 41–49] |chapter=Gendered nationalism: Reproducing "Us" versus "Them" |editor-last2=Lorentzen |editor-first2=Lois Ann |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/womenwarreader00lore_0/page/41}}</ref>

[[File:US Patriotic Army Recruiting Poster WW2 Then Now Forever.jpg|thumb|upright|World War II United States Patriotic Army Recruiting Poster]]
History, political ideologies, and religions place most nations along a continuum of muscular nationalism.<ref name=":5" /> Muscular nationalism conceptualizes a nation's identity as being derived from muscular or masculine attributes that are unique to a particular country.<ref name=":5" /> If definitions of nationalism and gender are understood as socially and culturally constructed, the two may be constructed in conjunction by invoking an [[Ingroups and outgroups|"us" versus "them" dichotomy]] for the purpose of the exclusion of the so-called "other," who is used to reinforce the unifying ties of the nation.<ref name=":4" /> The empowerment of one gender, nation or sexuality tends to occur at the expense and disempowerment of another; in this way, nationalism can be used as an instrument to perpetuate [[Heteronormativity|heteronormative]] structures of power.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gender Ironies of Nationalism|last=Mayer|first=Tamar|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2000}}</ref> The gendered manner in which dominant nationalism has been imagined in most states in the world has had important implications on not only individual's lived experience, but on international relations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robidoux|first=Michael A.|date=2002|title=Imagining a Canadian Identity through Sport: A Historical Interpretation of Lacrosse and Hockey|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=115|issue=456|pages=209–225 |doi=10.2307/4129220|jstor=4129220}}</ref> [[Colonialism]] has historically been heavily intertwined with muscular nationalism, from research linking [[hegemonic masculinity]] and empire-building,<ref name=":4" /> to [[Intersectionality|intersectional]] oppression being justified by colonialist images of the "other", a practice integral in the formation of Western identity.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Orientalism |last=Said |first=Edward |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1979 |isbn=978-0394740676 |location=New York |pages=1–368}}</ref> This "othering" may come in the form of [[orientalism]], whereby the East is [[Feminization (sociology)|feminized]] and [[sexualized]] by the West. The imagined feminine East, or "other," exists in contrast to the masculine West.

The status of conquered nations can become a causality dilemma: the nation was "conquered because they were effeminate and seen as effeminate because they were conquered."<ref name=":4" /> In defeat they are considered militaristically unskilled, not aggressive, and thus not muscular. In order for a nation to be considered "proper", it must possess the male-gendered characteristics of virility, as opposed to the stereotypically female characteristics of subservience and dependency.<ref name=":5" /> Muscular nationalism is often inseparable from the concept of a [[warrior]], which shares [[Ideology|ideological]] commonalities across many nations; they are defined by the masculine notions of aggression, willingness to engage in war, decisiveness, and muscular strength, as opposed to the feminine notions of peacefulness, weakness, non-violence, and compassion.<ref name=":4" /> This masculinized image of a warrior has been theorized to be "the culmination of a series of gendered historical and social processes" played out in a national and international context.<ref name=":4" /> Ideas of cultural dualism—of a martial man and chaste woman—which are implicit in muscular nationalism, underline the [[Race (human categorization)|raced]], [[Social class|classed]], [[gender]]ed, and [[Heteronormativity|heteronormative]] nature of dominant national identity.<ref name=":5" />

Nations and gender systems are mutually supportive [[Social constructionism|constructions]]: the nation fulfils the masculine ideals of comradeship and brotherhood.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Waetjen|first=Thembisa|date=2001|title=The Limits of Gender Rhetoric for Nationalism: A Case Study from Southern Africa|journal=Theory and Society|volume=30|issue=1|pages=121–152|doi=10.1023/a:1011099627847|jstor=658064|s2cid=142868365}}</ref> Masculinity has been cited as a notable factor in producing political militancy.<ref name=":6" /> A common feature of national crisis is a drastic shift in the socially acceptable ways of being a man,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alison|first=Miranda|date=2007|title=Wartime Sexual Violence: Women's Human Rights and Questions of Masculinity|jstor=20097951|journal=Review of International Studies|volume=33|issue=1|pages=75–90|doi=10.1017/s0260210507007310|s2cid=2332633|url=<!-- Disable Citation_bot. Dead link: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/953/1/WRAP_Alison_Wartime_sexual.pdf -->}}</ref> which then helps to shape the gendered perception of the nation as a whole.

=== Integral, pan and irredentism ===
{{main|Integral nationalism|Irredentism|Pan-nationalism}}
There are different types of nationalism including Risorgimento nationalism and Integral nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ruiGAgAAQBAJ&q=Peter+Alter++Risorgimento&pg=PA66|title=Contemporary Nationalism|isbn=978-1134695416|last1=Brown|first1=David|date=2003|publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>Integral nationalism is one of five types of nationalism defined by [[Carlton Hayes]] in his 1928 book ''The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism.''</ref> Whereas risorgimento nationalism applies to a nation seeking to establish a liberal state (for example the [[Risorgimento]] in Italy and similar movements in [[Greece]], Germany, [[Poland]] during the 19th century or the [[civic nationalism|civic]] [[American nationalism]]), integral nationalism results after a nation has achieved independence and has established a state. [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]], according to Alter and Brown, were examples of integral nationalism.

Some of the qualities that characterize integral nationalism are [[anti-individualism]], [[statism]], radical extremism, and aggressive-expansionist militarism. The term Integral Nationalism often overlaps with fascism, although many natural points of disagreement exist. Integral nationalism arises in countries where a strong military ethos has become entrenched through the independence struggle, when, once independence is achieved, it is believed that a strong military is required to ensure the security and viability of the new state. Also, the success of such a liberation struggle results in feelings of national superiority that may lead to extreme nationalism.

Pan-nationalism is unique in that it covers a large area span. Pan-nationalism focuses more on "clusters" of ethnic groups. [[Pan-Slavism]] is one example of Pan-nationalism. The goal is to unite all [[Slavic people]] into one country. They did succeed by uniting several [[South Slavs|south Slavic]] people into [[Yugoslavia]] in 1918.<ref>Ivo Banac, ''The National Question in Yugoslavia'' (Cornell University Press, 1984).</ref>

=== Left-wing ===
{{Main|Left-wing nationalism}}
[[File:Antiimperialismo caracas.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A political mural in [[Caracas]] featuring an anti-American and anti-imperialist message]]
Left-wing nationalism, occasionally known as socialist nationalism, not to be confused with the German fascist "[[Nazism|National Socialism]]",<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119472227/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171019203758/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1987.tb01886.x/abstract|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 October 2017|title=Class and Nation: Problems of Socialist Nationalism|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9248.1987.tb01886.x|year=2006|volume=35|issue=2|journal=Political Studies|pages=239–255|last1=Schwarzmantel|first1=J. J|s2cid=144474775|accessdate=24 October 2009}}</ref> is a political movement that combines [[left-wing politics]] with nationalism.

Many nationalist movements are dedicated to [[national liberation]], in the view that their nations are being persecuted by other nations and thus need to exercise [[self-determination]] by liberating themselves from the accused persecutors. [[Anti-Revisionism|Anti-revisionist]] [[Marxism–Leninism]] is closely tied with this ideology, and practical examples include Stalin's early work ''[[Marxism and the National Question]]'' and his [[socialism in one country]] edict, which declares that nationalism can be used in an internationalist context, fighting for national liberation without racial or religious divisions.

Other examples of left-wing nationalism include [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] that launched the [[Cuban Revolution]] in 1959, [[Cornwall]]'s [[Mebyon Kernow]], Ireland's [[Sinn Féin]], [[Wales]]'s [[Plaid Cymru]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]'s [[Galician Nationalist Bloc]], the [[Awami League]] in Bangladesh, the [[African National Congress]] in South Africa and numerous movements in Eastern Europe.<ref>Robert Zuzowski, "The Left and Nationalism in Eastern Europe" ''East European Quarterly'', 41#4 (2008) [https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-173464008/the-left-and-nationalism-in-eastern-europe online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123133019/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-173464008/the-left-and-nationalism-in-eastern-europe |date=23 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>Alexander J. Motyl, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Nationalism'' (2 vol. 2000).</ref>

=== National-anarchism ===
{{main|National-anarchism}}
Among the first advocates of national-anarchism were Hans Cany, Peter Töpfer and former [[British National Front|National Front]] activist [[Troy Southgate]], founder of the [[National Revolutionary Faction]], a since disbanded British-based organization which cultivated links to certain [[far-left]] and [[far-right]] circles in the United Kingdom and in [[post-Soviet states]], not to be confused with the national-anarchism of the Black Ram Group.<ref name="Macklin 2005">{{cite journal|last=Macklin|first=Graham D.|title=Co-opting the counter culture: Troy Southgate and the National Revolutionary Faction|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=39|issue=3|pages=301–326|date=September 2005|url=https://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=2439#more-2439|doi=10.1080/00313220500198292|s2cid=144248307|access-date=21 September 2020|archive-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205084154/https://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=2439#more-2439|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sunshine 2008">{{cite journal|author=Sunshine, Spencer|title=Rebranding Fascism: National-Anarchists|journal=[[The Public Eye (magazine)|The Public Eye]]|volume=23|issue=4|date=Winter 2008|pages=1–12|url=http://www.publiceye.org/magazine/v23n4/rebranding_fascism.html|access-date=12 November 2009|archive-date=26 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726220604/http://www.publiceye.org/magazine/v23n4/rebranding_fascism.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sanchez 2009">{{cite web|author=Sanchez, Casey|author-link=Casey Sanchez|title='National Anarchism': California racists claim they're Anarchists|work=[[Intelligence Report]]|date=Summer 2009|url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/california-racists-claim-they%E2%80%99re-anarchists|access-date=2 December 2009|archive-date=24 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224042238/https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/california-racists-claim-they%E2%80%99re-anarchists|url-status=live}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, national-anarchists worked with ''Albion Awake'', ''[[Alternative Green]]'' (published by former ''[[Green Anarchist]]'' editor [[Richard Hunt (editor)|Richard Hunt]]) and Jonathan Boulter to develop the Anarchist Heretics Fair.<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/> Those national-anarchists cite their influences primarily from [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[William Godwin]], [[Peter Kropotkin]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Max Stirner]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]].<ref name="Macklin 2005"/>

A position developed in Europe during the 1990s, national-anarchist groups have seen arisen worldwide, most prominently in Australia (New Right Australia/New Zealand), Germany (International National Anarchism) and the United States (BANA).<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> National-anarchism has been described as a [[Radical right (Europe)|radical]] [[right-wing]]<ref name="Griffin 2003">{{cite journal|author=Griffin, Roger|author-link=Roger Griffin|title=From slime mould to rhizome: an introduction to the groupuscular right|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=37|issue=1|pages=27–63|date=March 2003|doi=10.1080/0031322022000054321|s2cid=143709925}}</ref><ref name="Goodrick-Clarke 2003">{{cite book|author=Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas|author-link=Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke|title=Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity|publisher=New York University Press|year=2003|location=New York|isbn=978-0814731550|title-link=Black Sun (Goodrick-Clarke book)}}</ref><ref name="Sykes 2005">{{cite book|author=Sykes, Alan|title=The Radical Right in Britain: Social Imperialism to the BNP (British History in Perspective)|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2005|location=New York|isbn=978-0333599235}}</ref> nationalist ideology which advocates [[White separatism|racial separatism]] and white [[racial purity]].<ref name="Macklin 2005"/><ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> National-anarchists claim to [[Syncretic politics|syncretize]] [[Neotribalism|neotribal]] [[ethnic nationalism]] with [[philosophical anarchism]], mainly in their support for a [[stateless society]] whilst rejecting [[anarchist]] social philosophy.<ref name="Macklin 2005"/><ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> The main ideological innovation of national-anarchism is its [[anti-state]] [[palingenetic ultranationalism]].<ref name="Griffin 2003"/> National-anarchists advocate [[homogeneous]] [[communities]] in place of the [[nation state]]. National-anarchists claim that those of different [[Ethnic group|ethnic]] or [[Race (human categorization)|racial]] groups would be free to develop [[Separatism|separately]] in their own [[tribal commune]]s while striving to be politically [[meritocratic]], economically non-[[capitalist]], ecologically [[sustainable]] and socially and culturally [[Traditional values|traditional]].<ref name="Macklin 2005"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/>

Although the term ''national-anarchism'' dates back as far as the 1920s, the contemporary national-anarchist movement has been put forward since the late 1990s by British political activist [[Troy Southgate]], who positions it as being "[[Third Position|beyond left and right]]".<ref name="Macklin 2005"/> The few scholars who have studied national-anarchism conclude that it represents a further evolution in the thinking of the radical right rather than an entirely new dimension on the political spectrum.<ref name="Griffin 2003"/><ref name="Goodrick-Clarke 2003"/><ref name="Sykes 2005"/> National-anarchism is considered by anarchists as being a rebranding of [[totalitarian]] [[fascism]] and an [[oxymoron]] due to the inherent contradiction of anarchist philosophy of [[anti-fascism]], abolition of unjustified [[hierarchy]], dismantling of [[national borders]] and [[Moral universalism|universal]] [[Egalitarianism|equality]] between different nationalities as being incompatible with the idea of a synthesis between anarchism and fascism.<ref name="Sanchez 2009"/>

National-anarchism has elicited scepticism and outright hostility from both [[left-wing]] and far-right critics.<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> Critics, including scholars, accuse national-anarchists of being nothing more than [[white nationalists]] who promote a [[communitarian]] and [[racialist]] form of ethnic and racial separatism while wanting the [[militant chic]] of calling themselves ''anarchists'' without the historical and philosophical baggage that accompanies such a claim, including the [[anti-racist]] [[egalitarian]] anarchist philosophy and the contributions of [[Jewish anarchists]].<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> Some scholars are sceptical that implementing national-anarchism would result in an expansion of freedom and describe it as an [[authoritarian]] [[anti-statism]] that would result in authoritarianism and oppression, only on a smaller scale.<ref name="Lyons 2011">{{cite journal|author=Lyons, Matthew N.|title=Rising Above the Herd: Keith Preston's Authoritarian Anti-Statism|journal=[[New Politics (magazine)|New Politics]]|volume=7|issue=3|date=Summer 2011|url=https://newpol.org/rising-above-herd-keith-prestons-authoritarian-anti-statism/|access-date=27 July 2019|archive-date=27 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727044221/https://newpol.org/rising-above-herd-keith-prestons-authoritarian-anti-statism/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Nativist ===
{{see also|Nativism (politics)}}
Nativist nationalism is a type of nationalism similar to creole or territorial types of nationalism, but which defines belonging to a nation solely by being born on its territory. In countries where strong nativist nationalism exists, people who were not born in the country are seen as lesser nationals than those who were born there and are called ''[[immigrants]]'' even if they became naturalized. It is cultural as people will never see a foreign-born person as one of them and is legal as such people are banned for life from holding certain jobs, especially government jobs. In scholarly studies, ''nativism'' is a standard technical term, although those who hold this political view do not typically accept the label. {{nowrap|"[N]ativists}} . . . do not consider themselves nativists. For them it is a negative term and they rather consider themselves as '[[Patriotism|Patriots]]'."<ref>{{cite book|first= Oezguer|last= Dindar|title= American Nativism and Its Representation in the Film "L. A. Crash"|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7daSfJQ-fEwC&pg=PA4|publisher= GRIN Verlag|location= Munich, Germany|year= 2009 | page = 4|isbn= 978-3640704453}}</ref>

=== Racial ===
{{main|Racial nationalism}}
Racial nationalism is an ideology that advocates a racial definition of national identity. Racial nationalism seeks to preserve a given race through policies such as [[Anti-miscegenation laws|banning race mixing]] and the [[immigration]] of other races. Its ideas tend to be in direct conflict with those of [[anti-racism]] and [[multiculturalism]].<ref name="taub">{{cite news |last=Taub |first=Amanda |date=21 November 2016 |title=White Nationalism, Explained |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=14 June 2023 |archive-date=14 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614003947/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="silverstein">{{cite news |last=Silverstein |first=Jason |title=Billboard from 'white genocide' segregation group goes up along highway near Birmingham, Ala |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126 |work=[[New York Daily News]] |date=January 11, 2015 |access-date=14 June 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322082831/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126 |url-status=live }}</ref> Specific examples are [[black nationalism]] and [[white nationalism]].

=== Religious ===
{{main|Religious nationalism}}
Religious nationalism is the relationship of nationalism to a particular religious belief, dogma, or affiliation where a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, a common bond among the citizens of the nation. [[Saudi Arabia]]n, [[Iran]]ian, [[Egypt]]ian, [[Iraq]]i, [[America]]n and the [[Pakistani nationalism|Pakistani-Islamic nationalism]] ([[Two-Nation Theory]]) are some examples.

=== Territorial ===
{{main|Territorial nationalism}}
[[File:Brazil - 1969.svg|thumb|Nationalist slogan "''Brazil, love it or leave it''", used during the [[Brazilian military government|Brazilian military dictatorship]]]]
Some nationalists exclude certain groups. Some nationalists, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these), may then seek to deem certain minorities as not truly being a part of the 'national community' as they define it. Sometimes a mythic homeland is more important for the national identity than the actual territory occupied by the nation.<ref>Smith, Anthony D. 1986. The Ethnic Origins of Nations London: Basil Blackwell. pp. 6–18. {{ISBN|0631152059}}.</ref>

Territorial nationalists assume that all inhabitants of a particular nation owe allegiance to their country of birth or adoption.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=1BmPsVvbbdQC&pg=PA22 Middle East and North Africa: Challenge to Western Security] by Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann, [[Hoover Institution Press]], 1981, {{ISBN|978-0817973926}} p. 22</ref> A sacred quality is sought in the nation and in the popular memories it evokes. Citizenship is idealized by territorial nationalists. A criterion of a territorial nationalism is the establishment of a mass, public culture based on common values, codes and traditions of the population.{{sfn|Leoussi|2001|p=62}}

=== Sport ===
{{main|Nationalism and sport}}
Sport spectacles like football's World Cup command worldwide audiences as nations battle for supremacy and the fans invest intense support for their national team. Increasingly people have tied their loyalties and even their cultural identity to national teams.<ref>Grant Jarvie and Wray Vamplew, ''Sport, nationalism and cultural identity'' (1993).</ref> The globalization of audiences through television and other media has generated revenues from advertisers and subscribers in the billions of dollars, as the FIFA Scandals of 2015 revealed.<ref>Andrew Jennings, ''The Dirty Game: Uncovering the Scandal at FIFA'' (2015).</ref> Jeff Kingston looks at football, the Commonwealth Games, baseball, cricket, and the Olympics and finds that, "The capacity of sports to ignite and amplify nationalist passions and prejudices is as extraordinary as is their power to console, unify, uplift and generate goodwill."<ref>Jeff Kingston, ''Nationalism in Asia: A History Since 1945'' (2016).</ref> The phenomenon is evident across most of the world.<ref>H. Fernández L’Hoeste et al. ''Sports and Nationalism in Latin/o America'' (2015).</ref><ref>Alan Bairner, ''Sport, nationalism, and globalization: European and North American perspectives'' (2001).</ref><ref>Gwang Ok, ''Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Imperialism, Nationalism, Globalization'' (2007).</ref> The [[British Empire]] strongly emphasized sports among its soldiers and agents across the world, and often the locals joined in enthusiastically.<ref>P. McDevitt, ''May the Best Man Win: Sport, Masculinity, and Nationalism in Great Britain and the Empire, 1880–1935'' (2008).</ref> It established a high prestige competition in 1930, named the British Empire Games from 1930 to 1950, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games from 1954 to 1966, British Commonwealth Games from 1970 to 1974 and since then the [[Commonwealth Games]].<ref>[[Harold Perkin]], "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and Commonwealth." ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 6#2 (1989): 145–155.</ref>

The French Empire was not far behind the British in the use of sports to strengthen colonial solidarity with France. Colonial officials promoted and subsidized gymnastics, table games, and dance and helped football spread to French colonies.<ref>Driss Abbassi, "Le sport dans l'empire français: un instrument de domination?." ''Outre-mers'' 96.364 (2009): 5–15. [http://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_1631-0438_2009_num_96_364_4411 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607082154/http://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_1631-0438_2009_num_96_364_4411 |date=7 June 2019 }}</ref>