Editing Lockheed F-104 Starfighter (section)

== Flying characteristics ==
The Starfighter was the first combat aircraft capable of sustained Mach&nbsp;2 flight, and its speed and climb performance remained impressive more than thirty years after its first flight.<ref name="Kropf2002p9">Kropf 2002, p. 9.</ref> Equipped with razor-edge thin-blade supersonic wings (visible from the cockpit only in the mirrors),<ref name="Bashow1990p84">Bashow 1990, p. 84.</ref> it was designed for optimum performance above Mach 1.2.<ref name="Spitzmiller2011p145">Spitzmiller 2011, p. 145.</ref> If used appropriately, with high-speed surprise attacks and good use of its exceptional thrust-to-weight ratio, it could be a formidable opponent.<ref name="Davies2014pp16–17">Davies 2014, pp. 16–17.</ref> It was exceptionally stable at high speed, i.e., over {{convert|600|kn}}, at very low level, making it a potent tactical nuclear strike-fighter. However, in a low-speed turning contest with conventional subsonic opponents (as Pakistani pilots were with Indian Mystères in 1965),<ref name="Donald2003p144">Donald 2003, p. 144.</ref> the fighter was vulnerable.<ref name="Bashow1990p60">Bashow 1990, p. 60.</ref> The F-104's large turn radius was due to the high speeds required for maneuvering, and its high-alpha stalling and [[pitch-up]] behavior required attentiveness from its pilot.<ref name="YeagerJanos1985pp278–279">Yeager and Janos 1985, pp. 278–279.</ref> In reference to the F-104's low-speed turn performance, a humorous colloquialism was coined by a pilot in the skies over Edwards Air Force Base: "Banking with intent to turn."<ref name="Kluger2017p11">{{cite book |last1=Kluger |first1=Jeffrey |title=Apollo 8: The Thrilling Story of the First Mission to the Moon |date=2017 |publisher=Picador/Henry Holt and Company |location=New York, New York |isbn=9781627798327 |page=11}}</ref>

[[File:Chuck Yeager in NF-104.jpg|thumb|alt=Chuck Yeager waving to the camera from the cockpit of his NF-104|[[Chuck Yeager]] in the cockpit of an [[NF-104]], 4 December 1963]]

[[Takeoff]] speeds were between {{convert|180|and|200|kn}}, with the pilot needing to swiftly raise the landing gear to avoid exceeding the [[V speeds|maximum landing gear operating speed]] of {{convert|260|kn}}. Climb and cruise performance were outstanding; occasionally a "slow" light would illuminate on the instrument panel at around Mach&nbsp;2 to indicate that the engine compressor was nearing its limiting temperature and the pilot needed to throttle back. Landings were also performed at high speed: the downwind leg of the [[airfield traffic pattern|circuit]] was typically flown at approximately {{convert|210|kn}} with flaps in landing configuration, with the long, flat [[final approach (aviation)|final approach]] flown at around {{convert|175|kn}} and touchdown at {{convert|155|to|160|kn}}. Extra fuel, crosswinds or gusts, external stores, and other considerations could add up to {{convert|20|kn}} to these speeds. Unlike most aircraft, the F-104 was landed with the engine at high power, as the boundary-layer control system lost effectiveness below approximately 82% engine speed. Pilots were instructed not to cut the throttle while the plane was still airborne, as doing so would cause an abrupt (and generally uneven) loss of lift. To limit the Starfighter's landing roll, or distance traveled while decelerating from touchdown to taxi speed, powerful brakes were combined with a {{convert|16|ft|adj=on}} [[drogue chute|drag chute]].<ref name="Bowman2000pp40,43,122">Bowman 2000, pp. 40, 43, 122.</ref><ref name="Dobrzyński2015p114">Dobrzyński 2015, p. 114.</ref>

===Early problems===

The F-104 series all had a very high [[wing loading]] (made even higher when carrying external stores). During the early stall tests, the aircraft demonstrated the tendency to suddenly "pitch up" once it reached an angle of attack of approximately 15 degrees. This "pitch up" would result in a rapid increase in angle of attack to approximately 60 degrees, accompanied by lateral and directional oscillation, and followed by sudden uncontrolled [[Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)|yaw and roll]]. At this point the aircraft would be essentially tumbling, descending at a rate of {{convert|12000|–|15000|ft/min}}.<ref name="Upton2003p39">Upton 2003, p. 39.</ref> To combat this, an automatic pitch control (APC) was added, which initiated corrective action at the proper time to prevent reaching an angle of attack high enough to cause pitch-up under any operating condition. The high angle of attack area of flight was protected by a [[stick shaker]] system to warn the pilot of an approaching stall, and if this was ignored, a [[stick pusher]] system would pitch the aircraft's nose down to a safer angle of attack; this was often overridden by the pilot despite flight manual warnings against this practice.<ref name="Bashow1986p20">Bashow 1986, p. 20.</ref>

[[File:F-104A flight envelope.jpg|thumb|alt=F-104A flight envelope diagram|F-104A [[flight envelope]]]]

Another serious design issue that the aircraft encountered was T-tail flutter. Dick Heppe, who served as the initial project aerodynamics engineer for the F-104 program, recalled that "without question, the single most difficult technical challenge encountered in the XF-104 and F-104A development programs was the catastrophic flutter problem of the unique T-tailed empennage configuration". Because the horizontal tail's center of gravity was well aft of both the bending and torsional axes of the vertical tail to which it was attached, it was highly vulnerable to flutter at transonic speeds. During a test flight of the F-104A, the surviving XF-104 was flying chase to observe, and encountered violent T-tail flutter that caused the tail to separate from the aircraft. The test pilot of the XF-104 successfully ejected. This behavior was remedied by increasing the thickness of the stainless-steel box covers used in the tail assembly.<ref name="Upton2003p45">Upton 2003, p. 45.</ref>

The J79 was a brand-new engine, with development continuing throughout the YF-104A test phase and during service with the F-104A. The engine featured variable-incidence [[axial compressor|compressor stator]] blades, a design feature that altered the angle of the stator blades automatically with altitude and temperature.<ref name="Bowman2000p31"/> A condition known as "T-2 reset", a normal function that made large stator blade angle changes, caused several engine failures on takeoff. It was discovered that large and sudden temperature changes (e.g., from being parked in the sun prior to becoming airborne) were falsely causing the engine stator blades to close and choke the compressor. The dangers presented by these engine failures were compounded by the downward ejection seat, which gave the pilot little chance of a safe exit at low level. The engine systems were subsequently modified and the ejection seat changed to the more conventional upward type.<ref name="Pace1992pp66,68">Pace 1992, pp. 66, 68.</ref><ref name="Spitzmiller2011p153">Spitzmiller 2011, p. 153.</ref>

Uncontrolled [[oscillation]]s of its wingtip-mounted fuel tank sheared one wing off of an F-104B; this problem was apparent during testing of the XF-104 prototype and was eventually resolved by filling the tank compartments in a specific order.<ref name="Drendel1976p22">Drendel 1976, p. 22.</ref>

Early F-104s also lacked modulated afterburning, and as a result combat operations could only be performed at one of only two settings{{snd}} either maximum military power or full afterburner. Effectively this gave the pilot the choice of two level-flight speeds: Mach&nbsp;1 or Mach&nbsp;2.2.<ref name="Donald2003p142"/>

===Later problems===
A further engine problem was that of uncommanded opening of the [[Propelling nozzle|variable-thrust nozzle]] (usually through loss of engine oil pressure, as the nozzles were actuated using engine oil as hydraulic fluid); although the engine would be running normally at high power, the opening of the nozzle resulted in a drastic loss of thrust to below that required to maintain level flight. At low altitudes this was unrecoverable, and it caused the loss of at least seven F-104s during testing. A modification program installed a manual nozzle closure control that reduced the problem, but according to designer Kelly Johnson, this took nine years to resolve satisfactorily.<ref name="Kropf2002p7">Kropf 2002, p. 7.</ref><ref name="Donald2003p142">Donald 2003, p. 142.</ref>

The engine also suffered from [[afterburner]] blowout on takeoff, or even non-ignition, resulting in a major loss of thrust that could be detected by the pilot—the recommended action was to abandon the takeoff. The first fatal accident in German service was caused by this phenomenon. Some pilots experienced uncommanded "stick kicker" activation at low altitudes while flying straight and level, so F-104 crews were often directed to deactivate it for flight operations.<ref name="Kropf2002p116">Kropf 2002, p. 116.</ref> Asymmetric or "split" flap deployment was another frequent cause of accidents.<ref name="Dobrzyński2015p28">Dobrzyński 2015, p. 28.</ref> Many pilots also experienced severe nose wheel "[[Speed wobble|shimmy]]" on landing, which usually resulted in the aircraft leaving the runway and in some cases even flipping over onto its back.<ref name="Kropf2002p115">Kropf 2002, p. 115.</ref>

===West German service===
[[File:Luftwaffe_Museum_F-104_Starfighter_2007.jpg|thumb|alt=F-104 mounted on zero-length launch platform with rocket booster attached|West German F-104G with a [[zero-length launch]] rocket booster and a replica [[B43 nuclear bomb]] at [[Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin-Gatow]]]]
The introduction of a highly technical aircraft type to a newly reformed air force was fraught with problems. Many pilots and ground crew had settled into civilian jobs after World War&nbsp;II and had not kept pace with developments, with pilots being sent on short "refresher" courses in slow and benign-handling [[First-generation jet fighter|first-generation]] jet aircraft. Ground crew were similarly employed with minimal training and experience, which was one consequence of a conscripted military with high turnover of service personnel. Operating in the poor weather conditions of northwest Europe (unlike the fair weather training conditions at [[Luke AFB]] in [[Arizona]]) and flying low at high speed over hilly terrain, many accidents were attributed to [[controlled flight into terrain]] (CFIT). A total of 116 pilots were lost in West German F-104 accidents, including 1 ground-crew passenger and 8 USAF instructors.<ref name="Kropf2002p164">Kropf 2002, p. 164.</ref>

One contributing factor to this was the operational assignment of the F-104 in West German service: it was mainly used as a low-level fighter-bomber, as opposed to the original design of a high-speed, high-altitude fighter/interceptor. Furthermore, the installation of additional avionic equipment in the F-104G version, such as the [[inertial navigation system]], added distraction for the pilot, as well as extra weight that further hampered the flying capabilities of the plane. In contemporary West German magazine articles highlighting the Starfighter safety problems, the aircraft was portrayed as "overburdened" with technology, which was considered a latent overstrain on the aircrews.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-46274435.html "Trost vom General"]. ''[[Der Spiegel]]'', 13 October 1965.</ref>

In 1966 [[Johannes Steinhoff]] took over command of the ''Luftwaffe'' and grounded the entire ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Bundesmarine'' F-104 fleet until he was satisfied that problems had been resolved or at least reduced. In later years, the safety record improved, although a new problem of structural failure of the wings emerged. Original [[Fatigue (material)|fatigue]] calculations had not taken into account the high number of g-force loading cycles that the F-104 fleet was experiencing, and many airframes were returned to the depot for wing replacement or outright retirement. Towards the end of ''Luftwaffe'' service, some aircraft were modified to carry a [[flight data recorder]] or "black box", which could give an indication of the probable cause of an accident.<ref name="Reed1981p46">Reed 1981, p. 46.</ref>

[[Erich Hartmann]], the world's top-scoring [[fighter ace]], commanded one of West Germany's first post-war jet-fighter-equipped [[Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 71 "Richthofen"|wings]]<ref name="Weal1995p164">Weal 1995, p. 164.</ref> and deemed the F-104 to be an unsafe aircraft with poor handling characteristics for aerial combat. In [[German Navy|Navy]] service it lacked the safety margin of a twin-engine design such as the [[Blackburn Buccaneer]]. To the dismay of his superiors, Hartmann judged the fighter unfit for ''Luftwaffe'' use even before its introduction.<ref name="ToliverConstable1985pp285–286">Toliver and Constable 1985, pp. 285–286.</ref>

[[Eric Brown (pilot)|Eric Brown]] described the Starfighter as a hot ship, that "has to be flown every inch of the way". The USAF required Starfighter pilots to have at least 1,500 flight hours of experience prior to flying the F-104. West German pilots had around 400 hours.<ref name="Brown, Wings on my Sleeve, p98">[[Brown, Wings on my Sleeve|Wings on my Sleeve]], p.&nbsp;264</ref> Brown recommended the Blackburn Buccaneer instead.

===Normal operating hazards===
[[File:West German F-104 Starfighter.jpg|thumb|alt=West German F-104F parked on apron|A West German F-104F in 1960. In 1962 this aircraft crashed along with three others after a pilot error.]]

The causes of a large number of aircraft losses were the same as for any other similar type. They included: [[bird strike]]s and other foreign object damage (particularly to the engine), [[lightning strike]]s, pilot [[spatial disorientation]], and [[mid-air collision]]s with other aircraft.<ref name="Kropf2002pp165–173">Kropf 2002, pp. 165–163.</ref> One such accident occurred on 19&nbsp;June 1962 when a formation of four F-104F aircraft, practicing for the type's introduction-into-service ceremony the following day, crashed together after descending through a cloud bank. The pilot of the lead aircraft lost spatial orientation and was at too steep a nose-down angle to recover. Three German pilots and one American pilot were killed, and the four aircraft destroyed. As a result, formation aerobatic teams were immediately banned by the ''Luftwaffe''.<ref name="Kropf2002pp133–135">Kropf 2002, pp. 133–135.</ref>

=== Safety record ===
The safety record of the F-104 Starfighter became high-profile news in the mid-1960s, especially in West Germany.<ref name="Kropf2002p43">Kropf 2002, p. 43.</ref> West Germany initially ordered 309 F-104s, and over time another 607.<ref name="Kropf2002p18">Kropf 2002, p. 18.</ref> Deliveries of Lockheed-built aircraft started in August 1961, and domestically produced airframes began to roll off the assembly lines in December.<ref name="Kropf2002p21">Kropf 2002, p. 21.</ref> That same month, the first of an eventual total of 292 West German F-104s had crashed.<ref name="Kropf2002p117">Kropf 2002, p. 117.</ref> In October 1975, Lockheed agreed to pay a total of 3&nbsp;million [[Deutsche Mark]]s (US$1.2&nbsp;million) to approximately 60 widows and dependents of 32 ''Luftwaffe'' pilots killed during flight operations, though the company declined to admit liability.<ref name="Jackson1976p23">Jackson 1976, p. 23.</ref> While announcing the settlement, the plaintiffs' attorney acknowledged he had been seeking US$10&nbsp;million and noted that there were more instances of pilot error than he had expected.<ref name="FlightGlobalp644">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/FlightPDFArchive/1975/1975%20-%202360.PDF |title=World News |date=30 October 1975 |volume=108 |number=3477 |editor-last=Ramsden |editor-first=J.&nbsp;M. |website=flightglobal.com |publisher=IPC Transport Press Ltd |location=Dorset House, Stamford Street, London SE1 9LU |page=644 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027042227/https://www.flightglobal.com/FlightPDFArchive/1975/1975%20-%202360.PDF |archive-date=27 October 2019 |url-status=live |access-date=11 November 2019 }}</ref>

[[File:North American XB-70A Valkyrie in formation 061122-F-1234P-035.jpg|left|thumb|alt=XB-70 Valkyrie flying in formation with an T-38 Talon (far left), F-4 Phantom (near left), F-104 (near right), F-5 Freedom Fighter (far right)|The second [[North American XB-70 Valkyrie|XB-70 Valkyrie]] prototype flies in formation with other GE-powered aircraft for a photo shoot, 8&nbsp;June 1966. Shortly after this photograph was taken the F{{nbhyph}}104 (red tail, on the XB{{nbhyph}}70's right) and XB{{nbhyph}}70 collided, killing the F{{nbhyph}}104 pilot Joe Walker and the co{{nbhyph}}pilot of the XB{{nbhyph}}70.]]
Some operators lost a large proportion of their aircraft through accidents, although the accident rate varied widely depending on the user and operating conditions. The German Air Force and Federal German Navy, the largest combined user of the F-104 and operator of over 35% of all airframes built, lost approximately 32% of its Starfighters in accidents over the aircraft's 31-year career.<ref name="Paloque2012p43">Paloque 2012, p. 43.</ref> The Belgian Air Force, on the other hand, lost 41 of its 100 airframes between February 1963 and September 1983,<ref name="Paloque2012p36">Paloque 2012, p. 36.</ref> and Italy, the final Starfighter operator, lost 138 of 368 (37%) by 1992.<ref name="Paloque2012p56">Paloque 2012, p. 56.</ref> Canada's accident rate with the F-104 ultimately exceeded 46% (110 of 238) over its 25-year service history,<ref name="Bashow1990pp210–219">Bashow 1990, pp. 210–219.</ref> though the Canadian jets tended to be flown for a greater number of hours than those of other air forces (three times that of the German F-104s, for example).<ref name="Paloque2012p40">Paloque 2012, p. 40.</ref> However, some operators had substantially lower accident rates: Denmark's attrition rate for the F-104 was 24%, with Japan losing just 15%<ref name="Paloque2012p62">Paloque 2012, p. 62.</ref> and Norway 14% (6 of 43)<ref name="Paloque2012p70">Paloque 2012, p. 70.</ref> of their respective Starfighter fleets. The best accident rate was achieved by the [[Spanish Air Force]], which ended its Starfighter era with a perfect safety record: the [[Ejército del Aire]] lost none of its 18 F-104Gs and 3 TF-104Gs over a total of seven years and 17,500 flight hours.<ref name="Paloque2012p74">Paloque 2012, p. 74.</ref>

The cumulative destroyed rate of the F-104 Starfighter in USAF service as of 31&nbsp;December 1983 was 25.2 aircraft destroyed per 100,000 flight hours. This is the highest accident rate of any of the USAF Century Series fighters. By comparison, the cumulative destroyed rates for the other Century Series aircraft in USAF service over the same time period were 16.2 for the [[North American F-100 Super Sabre]], 9.7 for the [[McDonnell F-101 Voodoo]], <!--13.7 for the [[Convair F-102 Delta Dagger]], this is the class A mishap rate, still searching for the cumulative destroyed rate-->15.6 for the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, and 7.3 for the [[Convair F-106 Delta Dart]].<ref name="Flying Safety">{{cite magazine |last=Carson |first=Lt Col Douglas M |date=April 1984 |title=A-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFeNtpuw9QQC&q=%22class+a%22+%22mishap+rate%22+%22f-104%22&pg=RA3-PA6 |magazine=Flying Safety |volume=40 |number=4 |publisher=United States Air Force |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023204201/https://books.google.com/books?id=NFeNtpuw9QQC&pg=RA3-PA6&lpg=RA3-PA6&dq=%22class+a%22+%22mishap+rate%22+%22f-104%22&source=bl&ots=WJDY8-1fP0&sig=ACfU3U0FrAgWY3Mv0swnfufQAljJCuCvkA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjboKCV64HlAhWWFjQIHeV7ACIQ6AEwB3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22class%20a%22%20%22mishap%20rate%22%20%22f-104%22&f=false |archive-date=23 October 2019 |access-date=23 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> By comparison, the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) experienced an overall loss rate of 11.96 per 100,000 flying hours with the [[Dassault Mirage&nbsp;III]], losing 40 of 116 aircraft to accidents over its 25-year career from 1965 to 1989.<ref name="Susans1990pviii">Susans 1990, p. viii.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mirage IIID |url=http://www.saam.org.au/mirage-iiid/ |website=saam.org.au |publisher=South Australian Aviation Museum |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814080216/http://www.saam.org.au/mirage-iiid/ |archive-date=14 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Royal Air Force]] lost over 50 of 280 [[English Electric Lightning]]s, at one point experiencing 12 losses in the 17 months between January 1970 and May 1971; the loss rate per 100,000 hours from the introduction of the Lightning in 1961 to May 1971 was 17.3, higher than the lifetime West German Starfighter loss rate of 15.08.<ref name="Caygill2012pp178–181">Caygill 2012, pp. 178–181.</ref>

Notable USAF pilots who died in F-104 accidents include [[Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr.|Major Robert H. Lawrence Jr.]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Carney |first1=Emily |title=Remembering One Of The "MOL Men": Major Robert H. Lawrence, Jr. |url=https://space.nss.org/remembering-one-of-the-mol-men-major-robert-h-lawrence-jr/ |website=nss.org |date=3 February 2018 |publisher=National Space Society |access-date=12 November 2019}}</ref> and [[Iven C. Kincheloe Jr.|Captain Iven Kincheloe]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis, John K. |first1=John K. and Mike Machat |title=1001 Aviation Facts : Amazing and Little-known Information About All Aspects of Aviation |date=2017 |publisher=Specialty Press |location=Forest Lake, Minnesota |isbn=978-1-58007-244-1 |page=148 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZK84DwAAQBAJ&q=%22iven+carl+kincheloe+jr%22+%22f-104%22&pg=PA148 |access-date=12 November 2019}}</ref> Civilian (former USAAF) pilot [[Joseph A. Walker|Joe Walker]] died in a midair collision with an [[XB-70 Valkyrie]] while flying an F-104.<ref>{{cite web |title=Former Pilots: Joseph A. Walker |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/Biographies/Pilots/bd-dfrc-p019.html |website=nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |access-date=12 November 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731051438/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/Biographies/Pilots/bd-dfrc-p019.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Chuck Yeager]] was nearly killed in December 1963 when he [[Lockheed NF-104A#Third NF-104A|lost control of an NF-104A]] during a high-altitude record-breaking attempt; he lost the tips of two fingers and was hospitalized for a long period with severe burns after ejecting from the aircraft.<ref name="YeagerJanos1985pp278–284">Yeager and Janos 1985, pp. 278–284.</ref>